
Book 

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CDIVRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
IN EDUCATION 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
IN EDUCATION 



,^ 



By Dr. J: M. RICE 

Author of 

'the public school, system op the united states, 

"the rational spelling book," etc. 



NEW YORK 

PUBLISHERS PRINTING COMPANY 

1913 



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V 



^^\ <^^ 



Copyright, 1912, by 
J. M. RICE 



©C1.A328742 
y\^ " 1 . 



INTRODUCTION 

This book consists of a collection of twelve arti- 
cles bearing upon the causes of success and failure 
in the teaching of the so-called essential branches 
in the elementary schools. The essays, which were 
based on tests extended to a large number of chil- 
dren attending schools in various parts of our coun- 
try, were published at intervals in The Forum. 
Although the total number of pupils examined was 
not far from 100,000, I did not utilize the work of 
more than some 50,000 for strictly scientific pur- 
poses. Upon the other papers, I did considerable 
labor as well, but I decided to discard them be- 
cause the investigation was interrupted for a time 
through pressure of work after I had become the 
editor of the magazine, and I thought it advisable 
to begin anew with fresh material when its con- 
version into a quarterly gave me the required leisure 
to resume it. Moreover, I also felt that I could 
safely dispense with the older papers, as I was 
satisfied before publishing the later articles that the 
50,000 sufficed to furnish all the data needed to 
answer the purpose for which the tests had been 
intended. 

The material that I shall place before the reader 
will be presented in practically the same form in 

[v] 



INTRODUCTION 

which the articles originally appeared. By means 
of a careful revision, it would have been possible 
for me to curtail the discussion to some extent in 
the first four chapters. However, as, in certain re- 
spects, the work is admittedly the first of its kind 
that has ever appeared in print,^ I decided, if only 
for whatever historical interest there may be in it, 
to give it here substantially as it first appeared. 
Moreover, with a single exception, the articles are 
in their original order. The exception was made in 
the case of the chapter on Educational Research, 
to which, by reason of its scope, I gave the leading 
position, although, chronologically, it would be the 
sixth. 

The motive that had prompted me to take upon 
my shoulders this task — which, as the reader may 
well imagine, was not a very simple one — was the 
desire to learn whether or not it was possible so 
to extend the curriculum as to include the subjects 
demanded by the new school of education without 
detriment to the three R's. In the series of articles 
that I had previously written for The Forum as a 
result of visits to the schools of thirty-six cities,^ I 
had laid stress not so much on results as on the 
contrast in the class-room spirit that existed be- 
tween the old-fashioned, mechanical schools, with 
their narrow curriculum, on the one hand, and the 

* See Note at close of Introduction. 

^The series was composed of nine articles which appeared in 
the issues from October, 1892, to June, 1893, inclusively. The 
essays, with considerable additional material, were subsequently 
published in book form by the Century Company, as "The Pub- 
lic School System of the United States." 

[vi] 



INTRODUCTION 

modernized schools, with their extended curriculum, 
on the other. And while few, if any, appeared to 
express doubt in regard to the desirability of main- 
taining the modern spirit, doubt was expressed on 
many sides from the standpoint of practicability, 
the claim of the doubters being that, when too many 
branches were introduced, and things were made 
too pleasant for the children, the results in the 
essentials were bound to suffer. In opposition to 
this, however, the progressives claimed that the new 
spirit and curriculum did not tend in the least to 
militate against results in the essentials, but that, 
on the contrary, the pupils in their schools were 
much better grounded in the essentials than those 
in the old-fashioned, mechanical schools, with their 
much narrower curriculum. 

As the question here involved was clearly one of 
facts, I at least attempted to settle the controversy 
from that standpoint, thus making a departure 
from the course ordinarily pursued in endeavoring 
to solve problems in the educational field. Nor do 
I believe that the attempt was made altogether in 
vain, because I feel confident that I have discovered 
not only the fundamental cause of the unsatisfac- 
tory results that are found in so many of the ele- 
mentary schools of our country, but also a remedy 
that is capable of eliminating it. Moreover, the 
remedy does not partake of the nature of a fad, 
but is also fundamental in character, because it 
means no less than the introduction of scientific 
management into the conduct of our schools. 

In speaking of scientific management, in this con- 
[vii] 



INTRODUCTION 

nection, the reader will be likely to gain the im- 
pression that I am referring to the business side 
of school affairs, while, in fact, it is the educational 
side that I have in mind. The school has but a 
single purpose, which is that of educating children. 
Consequently, in the strict sense, scientific manage- 
ment in education can only be defined as a system 
of management specifically directed toward the 
elimination of waste in teaching, so that the chil- 
dren attending the schools may be duly rewarded 
for the expenditure of their time and effort. And, 
as will be seen in the text, my investigation indi- 
cated that, insofar as the results in the essentials 
were concerned, this was the case in not over one- 
third of the schools examined, two-thirds of them 
falling below a reasonable minimum standard, and 
half of these verj?^ far below, the difference between 
the best and the poorest third representing the 
equivalent of about two years of schooling, while 
in the more extreme instances the difference was 
even greater. But these figures do not show the 
whole truth, because this is not appreciated until we 
consider the other side of the story, namely, that 
when the pupils of the poorer schools graduate after 
an attendance of eight years, they are no farther 
advanced than the pupils of the better schools who 
are still in the fifth or sixth grade, and therefore 
have from two to three years of elementary educa- 
tion still before them. 

That a phenomenon of this nature would appear 
to indicate that there was something wrong with 
the management in education goes without saying. 
[ viii ] 



INTRODUCTION 

There is, indeed, but one contingency that would 
serve to render such a conclusion invalid, namely, 
that the differences in the results could have been 
accounted for by the differences in the conditions. 
However, as I was fully aware, before starting the 
investigation, that the results of my tests would 
be worthless for scientific purposes unless the con- 
ditions were fully considered, I made an effort to 
study the latter from every conceivable point of 
view, so that, in this regard, my work is not vul- 
nerable. Indeed, I carried the idea so far that the 
working tables upon which my articles on spelling 
were based contained no less than sixty-eight col- 
umns, one of these only showing the results, while 
sixty-seven showed the conditions. This matter will 
be fully commented on in the respective chapters; 
but I wish to say here in passing that the differ- 
ences in the results could not be accounted for by 
the difference in the conditions, excepting, perhaps, 
to a very small extent. For this reason, but one de- 
duction from my tests is possible, namely, that the 
differences in the results were due to differences in 
the quality of the teaching, so that it is upon this 
side that we must concentrate our attention in our 
efforts to improve the schools. 

That the business affairs of the schools should 
also be managed scientifically goes without saying, 
because there is naturally an advantage in an ad- 
ministrative system that works smoothly and effi- 
ciently, and without unnecessary waste of funds. 
But matters that strictly belong to the functions 
of the school board bear no direct logical relation 

[ix] 



INTRODUCTION 

to the results obtained in the individual branches 
in the class-room; the latter being a field that lies 
altogether within the province of the professional 
corps. The school board, as a body representing 
the people, may be logically empowered to deter- 
mine what branches shall be taught beyond the 
essentials, and also to decide what shall be done 
for the benefit of the exceptional children, as well 
as what special institutions shall be maintained. 
Or, in other words, it has a logical right to attend 
to all matters that could be intelligently deter- 
mined by the referendum. This, moreover, would 
include the power to make at least certain appoint- 
ments to the educational staff, although how far it 
should be empowered to go in this direction beyond 
the appointment of the superintendent is still re- 
garded as a debatable question. 

If it should be given the authority to go very 
far, it is evident that it could exert an unfavorable 
influence on the results, in the positive sense, by 
failing to make the best appointments for the money 
at its disposal, thereby affording an opportunity 
for the educational heads to shift the responsibility 
for the results, at least in part, upon the shoulders 
of the members of the school board. And what is 
true of the appointment of the educational workers 
is no less true of their discharge. However, as- 
suming that the conditions are such in any given 
locality that the members of the board are actuated 
by the highest motives only, and therefore make it 
possible for the educators to travel along the lines 
of least resistance in developing the educational 

[x] 



INTRODUCTION 

work — a condition that is not infrequently found — 
the board does not thereby exert a favorable in- 
fluence on the results, in the positive sense. What 
it does, under those circumstances, means no more 
than to refrain from putting any needless obstruc- 
tions in the way of the educators, as a consequence 
of which the responsibility for the results in the 
branches that are taught is placed where it prop- 
erly belongs, namely, upon the educational heads. 

The philosophy of this is that, while a board 
composed of members who are disposed to take ad- 
vantage of their powers for selfish ends, whether 
political or otherwise, may directly exert an un- 
favorable influence on the results, this cannot be 
said of the converse, because the highest stand that 
a board can take in respect to the attainment of 
results, insofar as the curriculum extends, is the 
negative one of refraining from hampering the edu- 
cational workers in their efforts to obtain the best 
possible results. And the negative stand cannot, 
of course, exert any direct influence on the side of 
improvement, because results do not spring into 
being spontaneously. 

The ideal basis for the achievement of results, 
then, would appear to be represented by a system 
under which the educational heads were given full 
opportunity to do what they believed to be the best 
in regard to the branches that they were authorized 
to teach, among which, naturally, the three R's are 
always included. Now, what we should expect to 
find, under these circumstances, would be, of course, 
that the results were on a higher plane in the lo- 

[xi] 



INTRODUCTION 

calities where the schools were conducted on that 
basis than in those where they were not. As it so 
happens, however, that the data collected during my 
investigations failed to show any such condition, 
it is evident that the mere separation of the busi- 
ness from the educational side of school affairs will 
not in itself suffice to assure the achievement of 
satisfactory results. That the separation would 
serve to pave the way for the attainment of the best 
possible results in the class-room seems to me to be 
non-debatable. But my data would appear to prove 
that actual success cannot be depended upon even 
under those conditions unless the proper thing is 
done by the educational workers after they have 
been given their pedagogical freedom. 

That, from the standpoint of scientific manage- 
ment, the school board cannot be regarded as the 
head of the educational department in matters 
pedagogical may be made clear in a very few words. 
Thus, the pedagogical system, as a unit, may be 
looked upon as a scries of five elements placed one 
above the other; being, from below upward, the 
child, the teacher, the principal, the superintendent, 
and the top. In practice, things are so arranged 
that the child is instructed and supervised by the 
teacher, the teacher by the principal, and the prin- 
cipal in turn by the superintendent. This arrange- 
ment is theoretically justified on the ground that, 
in the pedagogical sense, the teacher is supposed 
to be wiser than the child, the principal than the 
teacher, and the superintendent than the principal. 
Leaving aside the fact that this theory does not 
[xii] 



INTRODUCTION 

always hold in practice — because not all principals 
are pedagogically wiser than their teachers or all 
superintendents than their principals — and assuming 
that it does, then it is obvious that we can only 
go from the sublime to the ridiculous if we place 
above the superintendent, for the purpose of direct- 
ing him pedagogically, persons who are not sup- 
posed to have any pedagogical qualifications what- 
ever ; so that, from this point of view, they can only 
be looked upon, theoretically, as occupying a posi- 
tion that is even a step lower than that of the 
teacher, being, in fact, intermediate between herself 
and the child. 

Now, when, in consequence of the recognition of 
the contradiction, the educational is separated from 
the business department, this particular absurdity 
is eliminated. Nevertheless, that a change of this 
nature does not constitute a solution of the problem 
is evident from the fact that it simply takes away 
the restraining hand of the board, without putting 
anything else in its place. In other words, what 
happens, under those circumstances, is that a trans- 
formation takes place as a result of which there is 
no longer in existence an authorized entity that 
stands above the superintendent, to whom he is 
directly responsible for his work. In this way, the 
superintendent becomes the official top of the sys- 
tem — a law unto himself, and the sole judge of his 
own efficiency. Under these conditions, the results 
achieved in the schools of his community will be 
purely a matter of chance. If he has the qualifica- 
tions needed to bring about efficiency, the general 
[xiii ] 



INTRODUCTION 

run of the work in his schools will be good; if not, 
it will be poor; and the children must be satisfied 
with what they get. 

In my opinion, then, the solution of the problem 
will lie not in eliminating the fifth element, thus 
converting the superintendent into the top, but in 
placing at the top, in lieu of the school board, an 
entity to which the superintendent will be logically 
subordinate in the pedagogical sense, however great 
his qualifications may be, or however great they may 
become. This means that we must use as the top 
something that will be intrinsically worthy of recog- 
nition as such at all times and under all conditions, 
and above which no logical one is cither possible 
or conceivable. This is neither more nor less than 
the truth, to the extent that it is known. In prac- 
tice, this would be represented objectively by a series 
of standards based upon the results that have been 
achieved in the more successful schools laboring 
under ordinary conditions. 

While standards of this nature do not yet exist, 
the facts to be presented in this book will suffice 
to prove that their establishment lies well within 
the range of possibility. And when they shall have 
been not only established, but utilized in the proper 
way, there is no reason why the schools should not 
be, on the whole, very much improved. Although 
a system of this nature could not be expected to 
bring about perfection, there is no doubt that it 
could at least serve to lead to a very much greater 
degree of equality than we have to-day, and this 
mainly as a result of raising the standard of the 
[ xiv ] 



INTRODUCTION 

truly weak schools to such an extent that they would 
be able to meet the requirements of a fixed reason- 
able minimum. 

A scientific system of pedagogical management 
would demand fundamentally the measurement of 
results in the light of fixed standards. But while 
this proposition will no doubt seem both reasonable 
and plausible to the uninitiated, it nevertheless 
stands for a complete revolution in the educational 
field, because under its terms the basis of super- 
vision would be no longer represented by personal 
opinions, but by standards based on facts derived 
from the school of universal experience. And if we 
wish to accept this as a guide in the conduct of our 
schools, it will simply be necessary to inaugurate a 
system with that in view. In the individual chapters, 
we shall feel our way toward the goal; and in the 
final one I have given the outline of a plan that I 
look upon, at least in the main, as both practical and 
feasible. 

What must, of course, be borne in mind is that 
the establishment of standards will not in itself 
suffice to raise the results to a higher plane, as it 
is evident that this can do no more than furnish 
us with a rational basis for laboring in the right 
direction. In order that the standards might serve 
the purpose for which they were intended, it would 
be necessary to see that they were properly utilized 
by the superintendent. This, however, could not be 
depended upon unless some form of supervision 
should be exercised over the superintendent him- 
self. At the first glance it might appear that this 
[xv] 



INTRODUCTION 

suggestion simply carried us back to our starting 
point in calling for a human element to direct the 
work of the superintendent. But this is a mere de- 
lusion, because the supervision would be exercised 
from an entirely different standpoint. Thus, what 
would now be done would not lie in telling him what 
to do and how to do it, but the supervision over 
him would be limited to a study of the results 
achieved in the individual schools and class-rooms, 
and then seeing that the work was improved in those 
instances in which it did not come up to the demanded 
standard. And, if the standards should be clearly 
defined, this would not require any special pedagogi- 
cal insight, but would be a matter coming within the 
range of any intelligent citizen sufficiently interested 
in learning whether the school attended by his own 
children was doing as well as it could be expected to 
do under the existing conditions. 

In conclusion, I desire to say a word in regard 
to what I look upon as the essential difference be- 
tween scientific and unscientific management. And 
I cannot express my views upon this subject more 
tersely than to declare that, in my opinion, the 
former bears the same relation to the latter as the 
conception of universal bears to that of individual 
experience. Thus, as I see it, scientific manage- 
ment indicates that it is the intention of the de- 
partment to direct its activities upon the basis of 
the best that is known, and unscientific management 
the intention to direct them upon the basis of the 
past experiences of the individual at the top, re- 
gardless of what those of others may have been 
[ xvi ] 



INTRODUCTION 

in regard to the issues in question. Consequently, 
under unscientific management, the one at the top 
is a law unto himself, while, under scientific man- 
agement, he is subordinate to the higher law. Or, in 
other words, in the one case the individual occupies a 
position above the universal, while in the other he oc- 
cupies a position subordinate to it. And no extended 
discussion is required to explain how inordinately 
wasteful the methods are liable to become when the 
person in charge fails to avail himself of the benefit 
of the knowledge to be derived as a result of the 
combined experiences of the hosts of others who have 
labored in the same field. 

Since the publication of the last article in this 
series, I have given a great deal of thought to the 
particular nature of the force that would be re- 
quired to prevent the individual at the top from 
taking a position above the truth, that is, a position 
where he would have an opportunity to ignore the 
facts derived from universal experience, and, in- 
stead, give to his own opinions the right of way. 
And, as a result of such reflection, I have succeeded 
in devising a method of supervision on a basis that 
would, I believe, make it possible for us to carry 
out this ideal in practice. Naturally, a plan of 
supervision of this nature would not apply to edu- 
cation alone, but would be applicable to all depart- 
ments in the public service. The work in which the 
idea is embodied will logically follow the present one. 

Note. — In support of my statement that this is admittedly 
the first work of the kind to appear in print, I shall quote a 

[ xvii ] 



INTRODUCTION 

few references. The passages are particularly gratifying to 
me because of the rather unusual circumstance that the re- 
sults of the initial investigation were so very closely, if not 
coni})letely, verified by those that were subsequently made by 
others. 

"EnucATTOKAL PSYCHOLOGY/' by Edward L. Thorndike, 
Professor of Educational Psychology, Teachers' College, Col- 
umbia University: 

" Dr. Rice's study is quoted at some length, because it 
was the first of a series of studies of the actual results of 
school work, still few in number, but destined to increase 
ra])i(lly willi increasing scientific interest in school adminis- 
tration." (Pj). Ii35 and h26.) 

"The near future will doubtless see a rapid increase in the 
number and improvement in the quality of studies of the 
environmental causes of individual differences in mental traits. 
Rice's investigation of the differences due to different features 
of administration and teaching has been followed by similar 
studies by Cornman ('02), Stone ('08), Courtis ('09), and 
Thorndike ('10). Experts in education are becoming experi- 
mentalists and (juantitalivc thinkers, and are seeking to verify 
or refute the established beliefs concerning the effects of 
educational forces upon human nature. Students of history, 
government, sociology, economics, ethics, and religion are be- 
coming, or will soon become, quantitative thinkers concerning 
tlie shares of the various ])hysical and social forces in making 
individual men differ in j)olitics, crime, wealth, service, ideal- 
ism, or whatever trait concerns man's welfare." (P. 135.) 

"Sim:m,in(5 in TiiK Elementary School," by Dr. Oliver P. 
Cornman, Asst. Supt. of Schools, Philadelphifi, Pa.: 

"One extensive statistical inquiry, however, has been con- 
ducted by Dr. J. M. Rice. Conspicuous not only for the 
singularity of its presence within the field of ])edagogical 
discussion, but equally so for the skill and discernment with 
which it was carried to a conclusion, this investigation has 
done much to clear up vague o})inions as to the place of 
spelling in the elementary school, and to establish many im- 

[ xviii ] 



INTRODUCTION 

portant facts concerning the effect of the age, environment, 
etc., of the pupil, and of the methods and other factors of 
teaching upon the results of instruction. The writer has 
found this investigation very suggestive, and has employed 
some of Dr. Rice's tests in experiments to be described later." 
(P. 5.) 

"I have quoted this conclusion of Dr. Rice's because it 
paraphrases so well the deductions which I believe should be 
made from the evidence which has been submitted, and it 
seems especially appropriate to emphasize in this way the 
arrival at the same point by two such different routes as those 
taken by Dr, Rice and the writer." (P. 39.) 

"These conclusions indicate the comparative unimportance 
of the spelling drill as contributory to accuracy in spelling. 
They suggest also that we may not only agree with Dr. Rice 
in his contention that more than fifteen minutes daily spelling 
drill is time thrown away, but may go farther than he felt 
warranted in going, and dispense with the si)elling drill alto- 
gether without prejudice to the educational interests of the 
pupils." (Pp. 44 and 45.) 

"AiuTiiMETiCAL ABILITIES," by Dr. Cliff Winfield Scott, a dis- 
sertation for the Ph.D. at Columbia University: 

"So far as the author is aware, the only previous compre- 
hensive attempt to determine and account for arithmetical 
Abilities is that of Dr. Rice. While, as will be pointed out, 
there are several limitations to this study, its importance can 
hardly be overestimated. Previous to it, practice was almost 
entirely based on opinion; and the success of practice was 
almost entirely judged by the enthusiasm of those who de- 
fended their opinions." (P. 95.) 

"Environment })robably has little effect on arithmetical abil- 
ities. Of the five highest systems, the majority of pupils of 
one came from a crowded tenement district, those of two from 
exceptionally good homes, and those of two from fair. Prac- 
tically the same distribution is found among the five systems 
standing lowest." (P. 44.) 

"As anything less than .25 indicates little relationship and 

[ xix ] 



INTRODUCTION 

the average of the averages of these coefficients is only .176, 
there is little relationship indicated between the time expended 
by these twenty-six systems and the abilities produced." 
(P. 59.) 

"The greatest need shown by the research is standards of 
achievement. That the great variability herein shown would 
exist if school authorities possessed adequate means of measur- 
ing products is inconceivable; and it is believed that the 
present study will help standardize the work in arithmetic for 
the first six grades. Anyone who wishes may know how his 
system or school compares with the representative systems of 
the country." (P. 90.) 



[xx] 



CONTENTS 

PAGE 

I. Educational Research 1 

II. Obstacles to Rational Educational Reform 20 

III. The Essentials in Elementary Education . 37 

IV. Economy of Time in Teaching .... 53 
V. The Futility of the Spelling Grind . . 65 

VI. The Futility of the Spelling Grind, II . . 82 

VIL A Test in Arithmetic 100 

VIII. Causes of Success and Failure in Arith- 
metic 126 

IX. Talent vs. Training in Teaching— Arith- 
metic Concluded 151 

X. The Results of a Test in Language . . 180 

XI. The Need of a New Basis in Education . . 220 

XII. The Need of a New Basis in Supervision . 250 



[ xxi ] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
IN EDUCATION 



Althottgii many of the problems concerned in 
elementary education have confronted the world for 
centuries, and many great thinkers and practical 
educators have endeavored to aid in their solution, 
the entire field is still involved in uncertainty and 
indefiniteness. We have opinions innumerable, but 
no facts are at hand in support of our opinions. 
Educators are divided into creeds ; and while the 
members of the same creed are frequently in har- 
mony with one another, and sometimes form a mu- 
tual admiration society, there are few points on 
which the different creeds themselves agree. 

It may be said, therefore, without any exaggera- 
tion, that up to the present time the science of peda- 
gogy has been in its entirety a structure based on 
no stronger foundation than one of opinions. In 
this regard pedagogy represents a remarkably 
anomalous condition; for, as the department that 
points the way to the development of the sciences, 
'July-September, 1902. 

[1] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

it has itself failed to adopt what it has long been 
recommending to other scientific pursuits, namely, 
the inductive method of study. Its works consist 
of opinions, of reviews of opinions, and of opinions 
based on opinions, and therefore of a mass of con- 
tradictory material; and no really sustained for- 
ward movement may be expected until the conflict- 
ing views are subjected to analysis in the light of 
clear and unmistakable facts. 

In view of the circumstance that during its long 
period of existence pedagogy has established no 
facts, that side by side with it, in other fields, facts 
have multiplied and developed into sciences, it is 
perfectly legitimate to ask whether pedagogy will 
admit of purely scientific treatment, whether it is 
possible for us to accumulate such facts as will lead 
to the discovery of certain fundamental pedagogical 
laws and certain methods and processes upon which 
all educators must agree. 

Those who have never looked upon the educational 
problem from this rather novel standpoint will in- 
stinctively answer the question in the negative. 
They will say that the problem is complicated by so 
many elements which enter into the development of 
the child mind that no definite conclusions can be 
drawn. They will be supported in this view by the 
fact that even broad-minded teachers of wide ex- 
perience differ on the most elementary points com^ 
ing under their daily observation. And this further 
item may be mentioned in their favor, that even the 
same teachers are continually changing their views, 
that they no longer believe in one year what they 

[2] 



EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH 

firmly believed the year before, and that a year later 
they will begin to feel that their second theory was 
wrong and the first was right, and so on indefinitely. 

The evidence in favor of the negative side, though 
exceedingly strong, is, however, not at all conclu- 
sive. That in spite of all efforts the whole field of 
pedagogy should be still so very indefinite proves 
without doubt that, as a whole, the problem is a 
complicated one ; but it does not prove that we have 
availed ourselves of all possible means that may be 
of service in its solution. It may be that the nature 
of the child mind is so elusive, and the influence of 
natural endowment, heredity, and environment so 
varied, that all definite observation is rendered im- 
possible. Or, on the other hand, it may be that we 
have not yet applied the proper methods of ob- 
servation. If the former is true, we shall have to 
abandon the idea of ever developing a real science 
of pedagogy, and continue to grope our way in the 
dark. If, on the other hand, the latter is the case, 
then we must see what can be done to improve our 
methods of observation. 

In my opinion, both propositions may be answered 
in the affirmative, and this for the reason that the 
problem of elementary education presents two dis- 
tinct phases, one of which is involved in subtleties 
and belongs to the department of philosophy, while 
the other is much more superficial, and is, in large 
part, a question of science. Each one of these 
phases has its special goals, and each its special 
means of reaching those goals. The trouble lies in 
the fact that the two sides have never been properly 

[3] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

discriminated. The first includes all those factors 
which relate to the development of character, while 
the other is concerned with the acquisition of knowl- 
edge and skill. 

Broadly speaking, the means employed in the 
development of character — the will, the tastes, 
the habits, the feelings — are represented by the 
course of study as a whole, and concern the ques- 
tion of what the schools shall teach, the branches, 
and to a certain extent the material in each branch. 
As the composite picture of what the future man 
or woman should be differs in different individuals 
and is a matter of philosophical creed, the broader 
aims of the elementary schools will always differ 
more or less in accordance with creeds. Therefore, 
in countries, such as the United States, where in- 
dividual communities are free to conduct their own 
schools as they choose, the courses of study will con- 
tinue to differ in different localities, and will repre- 
sent the nature of the inhabitants, the stamp of the 
members of the school board, and the individual opin- 
ions of the superintendent. 

The means employed in the acquisition of knowl- 
edge and skill, on the other hand, represent the ele- 
ments involved in carrying out the mandates of the 
course of study, and are matters of detail in school 
work. They include the division of the material of 
each branch into parts suitable for each grade, the 
amount of time to be devoted to each subject in 
each grade, the methods of teaching each subject, 
etc. Although this aspect of the problem, as well 
as the other, has been thus far treated from the 

[4] 



EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH 

standpoint of creed, it is not a matter of creed, but 
one of scientific inquiry, and calls for treatment on 
the inductive plan. That it constitutes the heart 
of the problem of practical pedagogy, and merits 
careful consideration on the part of all thinking 
people, I shall endeavor to make clear during the 
course of this chapter. 

On the practical side of school work, two ques- 
tions are always before us: (1) How much time 
shall be devoted to a subject? and (2) what results 
shall be accomplished? These two questions have 
been discussed ad nauseam in pedagogical works and 
at educational meetings ; but educators are no nearer 
to an agreement at present than they have ever been. 
The difficulty is that they have never taken into 
consideration that there is a relation between the 
two questions. They have simply tried to answer 
them independently, and on a basis of philosophical 
creed. In consequence, we have a mass of philosophi- 
cal opinion as to what results shall be accomplished 
in each branch, and a mass of philosophical opinion 
as to how much time shall be devoted to each branch. 
And there the matter ends. 

Now as the ship of pedagogy, with respect to 
these two questions, has become waterlogged in a sea 
of opinions, efforts should be made to point the ship 
in a different direction and find whether we cannot 
get out of the trough. In this case, the matter is 
a very simple one: it is merely necessary to change 
the form of the proposition in order to be able 
to forge ahead. Instead of stating what results 

[5] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

shall be accomplished, let us ask, "What results can 
we get?" This changes the position of the edu- 
cator from a dogmatic one to one of scientific in- 
quiry. It opens the way to investigations which 
will enable us to learn what results the schools of 
our country have been getting — the good, the mod- 
erate, and the poor — and therefore what results may 
be reasonably expected. Our demands may then be 
stated in very definite terms. The results demanded 
are reasonable results. 

As to the amount of time to be devoted to a sub- 
ject, the answer is, "A reasonable amount of time 
to get reasonable results." To arrive at a con- 
clusion in this matter we must find how much time 
has been given to a subject in the schools where 
reasonable results have been obtained, and make 
our calculations accordingly. 

The element of time is the saving clause. If we 
were to demand results alone, we should be in dan- 
ger of going back to the methods employed in the 
old-fashioned, mechanical schools. But this cannot 
occur when we limit the time in which the prescribed 
results must be secured; for if more than a reason- 
able time is absorbed in accomplishing the demanded 
results, the school is below the standard. 

It is clear that the plan of measuring results in 
units of time is limited in application. It cannot 
be applied at all to abstract qualities represented 
by traits of character, and perhaps not to certain 
phases of knowledge and skill; but it can be very 
readily applied to spelling, penmanship, language, 
and arithmetic — the branches to which, on the aver- 

[6] 



EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH 

age, about seventy per cent of the school time is 
now devoted. I base this claim not on mere opin- 
ion, but on actual investigation. 

The plan of application is very simple. It lies in 
subjecting children taught under different systems to 
one and the same test — which must be fair and prac- 
tical — and comparing the results. Eacli branch re- 
quires a special treatment of its own. In spelling, 
words are dictated to the children in columns and 
sentences. In arithmetic, a set of questions cover- 
ing such work as is undertaken in all schools is given. 
In language, a story is read to the children, and the 
pupils reproduce it in their own words. The pen- 
manship may form a part of the test in language. 
The papers will show the legibility and neatness of 
the handwriting, etc. 

By subjecting the pupils of the schools of differ- 
ent cities to the same test in any one branch to which 
the plan is applicable, we can, without doubt, get 
at the comparative standing of different cities in 
that branch, and substitute facts for opinions in 
regard to whether or not the teachers of those cities 
have been successful in the teaching of that branch. 
If in arithmetic, for instance, the questions are so 
selected, grade for grade, that no exception is taken 
to them by the teachers of any city, and the results 
show that the pupils in city A can do the examples 
without any difficulty while those of city B can 
scarcely do them at all, then the facts prove that 
the children in A are a great deal stronger in arith- 
metic than those in B, and that there is probably 
something radically wrong with the arithmetic in B. 

[7] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

At the time of writing (May, 1902), I am in the 
midst of a test in arithmetic; and what I have just 
stated is not an imaginary, but an actual, case. The 
differences in results in different cities are so great 
as to be almost incredible. In the highest grammar- 
school grade, for instance, the class averages have 
thus far ranged between eleven and ninety-one per 
cent. As my test consists of eight examples, this 
means that while in the best class examined every 
child was able to perform correctly more than seven 
problems out of the eight, in the poorest they did 
not average even one right to the pupil. Several 
of the highest grammar-school classes averaged 
under twenty-five per cent, while some averaged over 
eighty per cent. And what is true of these differ- 
ences in individual classes is representative of differ- 
ent cities as a whole. In other words, while in some 
cities the percentages in general were high, in others 
they were extremely low. The schools were not 
selected, but taken at random; care being exercised 
simply as to neighborhood, so that the well-to-do, 
the middle-class, and the poor districts might all be 
represented. 

While excellent results in city A and miserable 
results in city B, secured on a perfectly fair test, 
taken under the same conditions, will convince the 
average man of affairs that the children of A are 
stronger in arithmetic than those of B, these results 
do not necessarily carry the same meaning to school 
superintendents and teachers, who, as a class, are 
not supposed to be people of affairs, but philosophers 
and psychologists. If the pupils of A should obtain 

[8] 



EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH 

an average of ninety-five per cent, and those of B 
should average not more than five per cent, some 
educators, with pronounced opinions as to methods, 
would not be swerved from their belief that the pupils 
of city B were really the stronger, if they happened 
to believe in the methods used in B ; and they would 
argue that the comparative strength in arithmetic, 
as between the pupils of two cities, could not be 
demonstrated by any test devised by man. Fortu- 
nately, however, many school superintendents are 
taking a much more rational view of the question 
than they did only a few years ago. They are really 
anxious to know what their pupils can do in com- 
parison with those of other cities ; they appreciate 
that the results obtained through my tests have an 
important bearing on the question; and if their 
pupils fail they sincerely wish to know it as well as 
the reasons for the failure. 

For all practical purposes, then, I think we have 
a right to declare that we can determine how the 
children in different cities compare with each other 
in certain branches as regards results; that from 
this standpoint we can classify the cities into good, 
fair, and poor; and that we can strike an average 
upon which we can base a reasonable demand. 

But the results alone do not tell us the whole 
story. They merely give us, commercially speak- 
ing, an account of the articles purchased, without 
indicating whether good value has been received for 
the capital invested. The child's capital is repre- 
sented by time; and whether certain results are to 
be lauded or condemned depends upon the amount 

[9] . 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

of time expended in obtaining them. Children in all 
cities have about the same amount of capital at their 
disposal for school purposes, three hundred minutes 
a day ; and the practical problem lies in discovering 
how this capital may be expended on sound economi- 
cal principles, i.e.y without waste. 

Applying this principle to arithmetic, it might 
be said that, if the cities devoting sixty minutes a 
day to the subject should secure a general average 
of sixty per cent, while those giving only forty min- 
utes should obtain an average of forty per cent, 
all these children were receiving equal value for the 
capital expended. It would then become debatable 
whether it was well to spend one-fifth of the capital 
on arithmetic, or whether it was advisable to be con- 
tent with less of that branch and devote part of the 
sixty minutes to some other subject. But if city A 
with its forty minutes should obtain an average of 
sixty per cent, while city B with its sixty minutes 
should secure an average of only forty per cent, then 
it would be evident that, for some reason or other, 
the children of A were not only paying thirty-three 
per cent less for their arithmetic than those of B, 
but that for the lower price they were getting a far 
superior article. The actual proportion as to price 
stated in units would be as forty to ninety. The 
problem lies in finding a reasonable market price. 

Now my tests, which cover schools in a large num- 
ber of cities, show without any doubt whatever that 
educators have no idea of price, that the results bear 
no relation to the time expended, that some schools 
pay a very high price for a very poor article, and 
[10] 



EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH 

others pay a very low price for a very good article, 
while all sorts of prices are paid for the identical 
article. 

For example, in my spelling test, which was taken 
in nineteen cities, the variations in results were small, 
but the time given to the subject in different cities 
varied from ten to forty minutes a day. Computa- 
tion showed that, taken all in all, the children did not 
do any better where they had spent forty minutes 
a day on spelling than in the schools where they 
had spent only ten. Or, stating the matter com- 
mercially, some children were paying a dollar for an 
article that other children were purchasing for twen- 
ty-five cents. 

In arithmetic, as I have already indicated, the 
variations in results have been enormous ; but while 
they have been very good in some cities and extreme- 
ly low in others, the results have borne no relation 
to the time given to the branch. The schools in 
which the children have been making a very poor 
showing have devoted just as much time to the 
subject as the schools where the problems have been 
solved without any difficulty, and in some instances 
more. The constant cry on the part of citizens 
for more time to spelling and more time to arith- 
metic is ridiculous. Whatever the shortcomings may 
be, the remedy does not lie in an increase of time. 

What I have said in regard to the time element 
In teaching is in one sense a solution of the most 
important educational question of the day, namely, 
"Can the schools cover a wide range of subjects 
without neglecting the essentials?" If my investi- 

[11] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

gations have proved any one thing, it is that time 
given to a subject beyond a certain point is not re- 
warded by additional return, that nothing can be 
gained by pressure; and the indications are that 
all the benefit that can be obtained through instruc- 
tion in the formal studies — reading, spelling, pen- 
manship, language, and arithmetic — can be had in 
two hours a day at the utmost. This means that 
we can enrich the course of study abundantly with- 
out detriment to the three R's, and that if the results 
are below a reasonable standard, in any locality 
where a reasonable amount of time is given to the 
formal studies, the failure is not due to a lack of 
amount of instruction in these branches, but to some 
other cause. 

But when we know what results can be accom- 
plished and the time in which reasonable results 
ought to be obtained, we have simply secured the 
needed foundation for the study of pedagogy on 
the inductive principle. It is not enough to know 
that some schools are very much more successful 
than others ; we must also try to learn the reasons 
why some have succeeded and others have failed, 
and in this way endeavor to discover certain funda- 
mental laws of teaching which may be applied by 
all. Upon this matter we are all at sea to-day. 
There are plenty of theories, but my investigations 
have proved that our preconceived notions have 
no foundation in fact. Many elements must be taken 
into consideration, such as the age, nationality, 
heredity, and environment of the pupils, the train- 
ing and personality of the teacher, the methods of 
[12] 



EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH 

instruction, the views of llio superintendent, etc. 
But iny figures j)r()ve that the infUienee of these 
factors is to-(J;iy unknown; and unless we secure a 
working- basis It must fori'ver remain unknown. 

For examph', every one seems to take it for 
granted that, spelling Is a cjuestion of heredity; hut 
if this is the case, how Is It that the [ilghest J)er- 
ci'ntage in l\\v United States, on my test, was se- 
cured In a school where ninety-five per cent of the 
pupils were children of Bohemian cigar-makers? In 
arithmetic, the children In the slums of some cities 
did a great deal better than those of the Ijest dis- 
tricts in others. This does not agree with our 
theories of environment, at least as far as arith- 
metic is concerned, '^^i'hen, again. If all dej)ended on 
the training and personality of the teacher, we 
should not find good results In the large; majority 
of instances In one locality and the opposite (con- 
dition In another, while the tea(;hers may be fully 
as well trained and carefully selected In tlu? one 
comnjuru'ty as In ihe other. Nor can the difference 
be accounted for on the score of methods alone; 
as some teachers do well with certain methods, while 
others comf)letely fail with them. The size of classes 
must also l)e ruled out, the results being .just as 
liable to be favorable In large as they are in sm/iU 
chisses. Perhaps the demands of the suf)erlntendent 
play an Important })art; and this, again, is a [)oint 
calling for most careful study. The mere fact that 
very good results can be obtained among children 
whose home surroundings are of the poorest, while 
very inferior results are frequently found where the 

[13] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

conditions are iill iliat can he dosircd, Is sufficient 
evidence to upset many of our previous calculations. 

Now that it has heen (h'nionstrated that we have 
a ready means of h\ii-nin^ with wliat success each 
leaclier is meeting, and therefore a hasis for study- 
ing* wliy certain schools are successful and others are 
not, tliere ou^ht to he no <K lay in taking advantage 
of it. Hut who is to do tlie work, /md who is to 
pay for it P 

Amon^- I lie channels that at once su^^est them- 
selves ai-e the Hureau of I'.ducation at. Washington, 
the (hparlmcnls of pedat^o^y in our universities, the 
normal schools, and the National I'iducat ional Asso- 
ciation. Any or all of these institutions would he 
suilahic; hut they are slow in according recognition 
to new ideas and in carrying* them to a j)oint of 
practical usefulness. I do not douht that in duo 
couise of lime the woiU w*)uld he taken up, officially, 
in one little corner, hy one of the hodies I have men- 
tioned, and would leaf) from it to another little 
cornir, atui that in the course of twenty-five years 
it would he pMierally reco^iii/i>d. Hut why shovdd 
we wait twenty-five years? Why not act at once? 
If the ways of red tape and philosophy are slow, 
who is to com{)el us to em[)loy these a^'encies? 

Hut who is to further the work if not these estab- 
lished ins! ilul ions? Why, those who are most di- 
rectly intirested in the si'hools, the people them- 
selvi's. In this matter our country is fortunately 
situated; for the pi>oplc> of each connuunity own 
their own schools and are free to conduct them as 
they choose, so that they need not wait for the 
[U] 



EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH 

good-will of others if they desire to branch out in 
any progressive direction. The plan is practical 
and its effects are immediate, and it is therefore 
one for the practical people to take in hand. The 
people as a whole are not interested in pedagogy, 
because they do not understand it, and they are 
not in sympathy with pedagogues, because they do 
not understand their subtle minds. But the people 
are intensely interested in the schools, for the sup- 
port of which they are willing to dip down into their 
pockets to almost any depth, with reverence, and, as 
a rule, without the slightest murmur. That they 
have never taken an intelligent interest in the schools 
is not their fault, but that of the educators them- 
selves; for how can they be expected to distinguish 
the true from the false when the leaders in the pro- 
fession do not agree as to which is the one and 
which the other? The system I recommend is in- 
telligible to all ; and if it should be carried into ef- 
fect, laymen could take a really intelligent interest 
in their schools. It would give them an opportunity 
of knowing what returns they were getting for the 
capital expended, because it would enable them to 
learn with what success each individual teacher was 
meeting as compared with that of other teachers. 
Even people who spend money lavishly are anxious 
to make the best bargain for what they do spend. 

Now, any community can carry out the system if 
the citizens are willing to pay for the special services 
required. While the plan is simple, it entails con- 
siderable labor; and in order that the work may be 
properly and systematically performed, some one 
[15] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

must be designated to do it and to be held respon- 
sible for it. As the city superintendent has his 
hands full enough at present, a special office must 
be created for the purpose. To the superintendent, 
however, such assistance would be of great value. 
Upon him devolves the work of supervising teachers, 
and largely that of recommending their appointment 
or reappointment, of preparing courses of study, 
time tables for the different grades, etc. ; and in all 
these matters the records prepared by a special as- 
sistant would be an invaluable guide. Moreover, by 
repeating the tests from time to time, he would 
have a much clearer idea of how his recommenda- 
tions were working out than he can have when he 
shoots at random, as he now does, and there is no 
one to tell him when he hits or misses the target. 

Besides taking tests and tabulating results, the 
work of the special assistant would lie in endeavor- 
ing to account for the differences in results on the 
part of different teachers in his locality; and it 
would be the duty of the special assistant in each 
city to work in harmony with similar assistants in 
other cities, in order to account for differences in 
results in various branches in different localities. 
Under these circumstances, the children could at 
once receive the benefit of every new discovery. The 
small additional expense involved in maintaining an 
office of this kind should not be considered any more 
than people consider whether, by reason of expense, 
their school halls shall be illuminated with candles 
or electric lights. If one enterprising city will take 
the initiative, others will be sure to follow, just as 
[16] 



EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH 

others followed the leader in engaging a city super- 
intendent. 

My plan of investigation first appeared in print 
in my article on "Obstacles to Rational Educational 
Reform," which was published in The Forum for 
December, 1896, and which is Chapter II of this 
book; and in a way that I had not anticipated I 
brought it directly to the notice of the Department 
of Superintendence at its annual meeting in Indian- 
apolis, in February, 1897. I had been invited to 
conduct a round-table discussion on the three R's, 
and had expected a handful of people to talk the 
matter over quietly and leisurely. But it so hap- 
pened that the round-table turned out to be a mass 
meeting, including the picked educational people of 
the country. After a few opening remarks, I en- 
deavored to arouse discussion on a question which 
I stated somewhat as follows: In some cities ten 
minutes a day are devoted to spelling for eight years ; 
in others, forty. Now how can we tell at the end of 
eight years whether the children who have had forty 
minutes are better spellers than those who have had 
only ten.'' 

I had expected, in this way, to draw out the ideas 
of those who believed in much teaching of spelling 
and those who believed in little of it, and thus to 
labor for a compromise; but, to my great surprise, 
the question threw consternation into the camp. 
The first to respond was a very popular professor 
of psychology engaged in training teachers in the 
West. He said, in effect, that the question was one 
that could never be answered; and he gave me a 
[17] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

rather severe drubbing for taking up the time of 
such an important body of educators in asking them 
silly questions. 

The next speaker was a prominent superintendent, 
who did not like the way I had been treated and 
tried to come to my rescue. After this, quite a num- 
ber took the platform in response to calls from the 
audience, and spoke on spelling in a general way ; 
but no one attempted to answer the question. 

Then followed comments among the audience which 
were anything but flattering to me. There was a 
general agreement that my meeting had been a fail- 
ure. I heard one remark to the effect that the after- 
noon had been wasted. Another accused me of try- 
ing to lead the superintendents into a trap. The 
only comments which seemed to run contrary to the 
current were those of a well-known superintendent, 
who said to me, " I am not quite sure that the meet- 
ing was so very much of a failure," and of another, 
who said, with a smile, "We don't know anything." 

After the meeting of the superintendents in 1897, 
the question of educational results was not, to my 
knowledge, again brought before them until five 
years later (February, 1902), when Dr. Paul H. 
Hanus, Professor of Education at Harvard Univer- 
sity, came out in the strongest terms in support of 
the same idea. Professor Hanus's paper was pub- 
lished, somewhat modified, in The Forum for April, 
1902, under the title "Our Chaotic Education"; and 
to show the firm position taken by him in regard to 
the matter, I shall quote the following passages : 
[18] 



EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH 

No physicist or biologist would ignore his fellow-workers in 
this way. When Roentgen announced his discovery, other 
physicists confirmed his discovery. The facts of embryology 
and their bearing on the theory of evolution are similarly con- 
firmed by each biologist under the conditions which led to 
their discovery. The principles of science once established in 
this way, no one can doubt or belittle them. Each experi- 
menter then sees clearly what conditions must be observed to 
secure certain results, and the application of principles pro- 
ceeds intelligently, no matter how varied the circumstances 
under which the application is made. So it must be in edu- 
cation, if we are ever to escape from the quagmire of ran- 
dom and isolated experimenting in which each worker seeks 
to find the way out for himself, disregarding the landmarks 
and sign-posts that have already been set up by his predeces- 
sors. Briefly, then, we must organize our educational experi- 
ence just as we must organize our educational doctrine, if we 
are to make real progress. 

Under such circumstances we could face the teaching profes- 
sion and the general public with facts, instead of opinions. 
The enormous diflFerence between the weight of these two 
very diflFerent things in educational affairs still remains to be 
experienced. . . . 

The only comprehensive attempt known to the writer to 
secure definite information concerning the actual achievement 
of the schools in the school arts, with a view to establishing 
just how much time can be saved by suitable restriction and 
selection of subject-matter, was made by the editor of The 
Forum. His investigations would naturally be of great im- 
portance for any future researches that might be undertaken. 

The articles referred to were published in The 
Forum for December, 1896, and January, February, 
April, and June, 1897, being Chapters II- VI of the 
present work. 



[19] 



II 



The purpose of the present article is to point out 
how, in my opinion, the obstacles to rational educa- 
tional progress may be overcome, and the coopera- 
tion secured on the part of all forces toward the 
development of an ideal system of schools. 

While in former years I entertained the belief, 
in common with others, that the cause of the 
obstacles to educational progress might be attributed 
to public indifference and its consequences — politics 
in school boards, incompetent supervision, insufficient 
preparation on the part of teachers, etc. — further 
study and reflection have led me to the conclusion 
that these elements are not the ultimate cause of 
the evil, but constitute only the symptoms of a much 
more deeply hidden disease which permits all sorts 
of havoc to be played with the schools. The evil 
to which I refer is this ; namely, that educators them- 
selves cannot come to an agreement in regard to 
what changes, if any, are desirable or feasible. Many 
educators — men of learning and experience — do not 
appear to be in sympathy with the system of educa- 
tion advocated by reformers. Others, while admir- 
ing the spirit of the so-called "new education," ques- 
* December, 1896. 
[20] 



OBSTACLES TO EDUCATIONAL REFORM 

tion the feasibility of carrying out its demands in 
the common schools. Last, the great mass of our 
teachers, who have not entered into the intricacies 
of the problem, finding that there are many sides 
to the question, are in a state of doubt, ready to be 
led by any faction. 

The ultimate cause of the lamentably slow progress 
toward the introduction of educational reforms may 
be traced, therefore, beyond the province of the 
general public, into the professional circle itself; to 
an inner strife and turmoil consequent upon the un- 
certainties in which the entire problem of elementary 
education is involved. Consequently, in my opinion, 
the fate of educational reform rests entirely in the 
hands of educators, and will be decided by what is 
done, through their efforts, to dispel the uncertainties 
which have led the public to hesitate. In other 
words, if the educators can be brought to an under- 
standing, the obstructions from without will take 
care of themselves. But is it possible for all educa- 
tors to meet on a common ground and together lay 
out definite plans of action .^^ 

If the source of the difficulty could be traced to 
a material difference in point of view in regard to 
the purpose of elementary education — what, under 
ideal conditions, the elementary schools of our coun- 
try ought to accomplish — then of course, endeavors 
to bring the various educational factions to an agree- 
ment would be as fruitless as endeavors to secure 
religious unity. A careful consideration of educa- 
tional discussions, however, shows that a difference 
of opinion on the general purpose of our schools 
[21] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

does not exist; for there is substantially an agree- 
ment to the effect that the general aim of the ele- 
mentary schools of our country is to develop a moral 
individual, endowed with the power of independent 
thought, the ability to earn an honest livelihood, 
culture, refinement, and a broad and intelligent in- 
terest in human affairs. As the source of the con- 
flict cannot be traced to the problem of educational 
purposes, we cannot fail to conclude that it must 
be sought at the practical end of the problem. And 
it is here that the difficulty actually lies. For, while 
we are agreed that the ultimate purpose of elemen- 
tary education is to develop a good citizen, in the 
broadest sense of the term, we are by no means clear 
in regard to what to do, in order that the child may 
receive the benefit of all that can be done for him. 

In matters pertaining to the practical conduct of 
the schools, our notions to-day are not much more 
definite than they might have been a century ago. 
Indeed, so crude are they that no sooner do we dip 
beneath the surface in our inquiries than we find 
ourselves surrounded by utter confusion. The state- 
ments made on practical questions, even among our 
leading educators, are conflicting to the point of 
absurdity. And, as there are no proofs to offer 
as to who is right and who is wrong, we are left com- 
pletely without a guide; so that we do not know 
which way to turn. Everything is speculative : noth- 
ing is positive. "I think" and "I believe" are the 
stereotyped expressions of the educational world: 
"I know" has not yet been admitted. If our ideas 
on the practical side should be vague only in regard 
[ 22] 



OBSTACLES TO EDUCATIONAL REFORM 

to certain subtle questions now under discussion in 
our leading pedagogical circles, and involving hair- 
breadth metaphysical distinctions, the weaknesses 
would certainly be pardonable. Perfection cannot 
be found in any department of learning. But the 
complexion becomes entirely changed when we con- 
sider that we have absolutely no definite knowledge 
in regard to the most elementary questions ; that our 
ideas in regard to a proper treatment of the old 
subjects — reading, spelling, penmanship, grammar, 
composition, and arithmetic — are fully as indefinite 
as they are in regard to what course to pursue in 
the sciences and the arts, or in the training of the 
moral character. Our leading educators are not 
even agreed, for example, as to whether the results 
secured by a five-year course in technical grammar 
are better than those secured by a one-year course, 
or whether the results will not be just as good if 
technical grammar be entirely omitted from the 
elementary schools. And, again, they are by no 
means agreed as to whether or not children who de- 
vote forty minutes daily to spelling turn out to be 
better spellers than those who devote, say, not more 
than five or ten minutes daily to that subject. 

The element which, above all others, leads our peo- 
ple to doubt the feasibility of the new education con- 
cerns the problem as to whether or not there is 
enough "time" at our disposal to secure satisfactory 
results in reading, writing, and arithmetic, if new 
subjects be freely introduced into the schools. In 
view of what I have just stated; namely, that the 
opinions of the most experienced vary enormously 
[23] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

on the question of the time required to do a piece of 
work, it may readily be seen that whatever may be 
said on the subject at present is merely a random 
guess. Many of our reformers have endeavored to 
evade this question altogether by arguments to the 
effect that the three R's are merely the tools of 
knowledge, and that, consequently, they are of much 
less educative value than the matters on which the 
new education lays stress. But such arguments 
will not aid the cause; for, whatever our individual 
notions on the point at issue may be, we cannot 
escape from the fact that the citizen who is not 
properly grounded in the three R's labors at a dis- 
advantage in the struggle for existence, so that duty 
compels us to check our individual inclinations and 
to bow gracefully to the inevitable. 

Until the truth is known concerning the possibility 
of broadening the curriculum without detriment to 
the three R's, educational conflict will not abate, 
and the road to progress will continue to be barred. 
Therefore, the work which, above all others, ought 
now to engage the attention of our people, in order 
that the children may receive the benefit of all that 
it is possible to do for them, is to undertake meas- 
ures that will lead to the positive discovery as to 
how much time is actually required to secure satis- 
factory results in reading, writing, and arithmetic. 
That to-day we are utterly unable to give an intelli- 
gent answer to this question is due simply to the 
fact that we have not yet made an attempt to dis- 
cover the landmark which must serve as a guide in 
directing our judgment. And, before we shall be 

[21] 



OBSTACLES TO EDUCATIONAL REFORM 

able to make any progress in the solution of this 
problem, it will be necessary definitely to locate the 
central point around which the entire problem of 
educational reform revolves. The landmark to which 
I refer is simply this: namely, a clear definition of 
what is meant by the term "satisfactory results." 
If we do not know what we mean by satisfactory 
results, how shall we be able, with any degree of in- 
telligence, to judge when our task has been satis- 
factorily performed? If we have no definite goal, 
who can tell how long it will take to reach it, or 
what road will most directly lead to it? Until we 
come to a definite understanding in regard to this 
matter, our entire educational work will lack direc- 
tion, and we shall continue, as heretofore, to grope 
our way along passages completely enveloped in 
darkness, in an endeavor to land we know not where. 
If we might have a standard which would enable 
us to tell when our task had been completed, our at- 
tention might be earnestly directed toward the 
discovery of short cuts in educational processes, 
which would enable the child, by the expenditure of 
very little time, to acquire the demanded knowledge 
and skill in branches whose educative value is small. 
Thus, by securing a standard of measurement for 
determining the results in the three R's alone, our 
progressive educators might become freed from the 
fetters of prejudice, to labor, without restraint, to- 
ward the realization of higher ideals. Moreover, in 
the branches 'that are distinctively educative, a 
definite goal is necessary in order to determine the 
feasibility of certain methods of instruction. How, 
[25] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

for example, will it be possible to determine whether 
or not satisfactory results can be secured in history 
and geography, if these subjects be unified in instruc- 
tion, unless we have an understanding in regard to 
what is meant by satisfactory results in these 
branches? Or, how shall we be able to tell to what 
extent arithmetic may be successfully taught in con- 
nection with other branches, unless we know what is 
meant by satisfactory results in arithmetic? 

When a standard is recognized in regard to the 
knowledge and skill which the child ought to possess 
in spelling, reading, penmanship, language, arith- 
metic, and so on, then all teachers may benefit from 
the labors of others directed toward the discovery 
of both economical and interesting methods of teach-v 
ing. For want of such a standard, each individual 
teacher has, thus far, been a law unto himself ; per- 
mitted to experiment on his pupils in accordance 
with his own individual educational notions, whether 
inherited from his grandmother or the result of study 
and reflection, entirely regardless of what was being 
done by others. So long as this condition is pos- 
sible, pedagogy cannot lay claim to recognition as 
a science. In the recognized fields of science, such 
as physics, chemistry, medicine, etc., the members 
of the profession are not only willing to learn from 
each other, but they are compelled to do so under 
penalty of the law. Those who fail, in practice, to 
give due recognition to important discoveries are 
held responsible for the consequences. Before ped- 
agogy can be recognized as a science, it will be nec- 
essary to discover at least some truths in regard 
[26] 



OBSTACLES TO EDUCATIONAL REFORM 

to educational processes which, if ignored by the 
teacher, will make him fully as liable to prosecution 
for malpractice as the physician who has bungled 
in setting a bone. Until an accurate standard of 
measurement is recognized by which such truths may 
be discovered, ward politicians will continue to wield 
the baton, and educational anarchy will continue to 
prevail. 

It may here be argued that it would be impossible 
to secure a definite standard for measuring results, 
generally applicable in our country, on the ground 
that the needs of our people vary in different locali- 
ties. While this sentiment deserves recognition, it 
will become apparent, during the course of this 
chapter, that proper attention to local conditions, in 
the conduct of our elementary schools, would not 
tend in the least to alter the plan as a whole. 

At present, our ideas in regard to what the ele- 
mentary schools are in duty bound to accomplish, 
or how much may be reasonably expected of the 
pupil, do not extend beyond a few very general 
notions. There is an agreement, first, that the child, 
on leaving school, should be able to read; second, 
that he should possess the ability to write a letter 
or a composition in a neat, legible hand, without 
mistakes in spelling, grammar, or punctuation; 
third, that he should be skilled in the use of figures ; 
fourth, that he should have some knowledge of 
geography; and, fifth, that he should know some 
history. That we have no definite standard, however, 
in any one of these branches, becomes apparent so 
soon as we seek for definite information. How 
[27] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

many and which words should the child be able to 
spell, on leaving school, without referring to a 
dictionary? Ought our citizen to be a litterateur, 
or will the ability to write a good English sentence 
be satisfactory? Shall the child's penmanship, on 
graduating from the elementary school, be of suffi- 
cient elegance to enable him to earn money by writ- 
ing visiting cards, or will a legible hand suffice? A 
very important question that arises in connection 
with this apparently insignificant subject concerns 
a definition of what is meant by a legible hand. How 
far-reaching this matter actually is may be seen 
when we consider that the desire to secure an ele- 
gant instead of a neat handwriting may exert a 
great influence on the entire school course. The 
extra amount of time required in travelling from 
legibility to elegance might be, in itself, sufficient to 
crowd nature-study out of the curriculum. More- 
over, the desire to secure elegant penmanship might 
necessitate a movement so slow in everything that 
the child was obliged to write as to interfere seriously 
with his development in other directions. Again, 
shall the child, when he graduates from the elemen- 
tary school, be able, on demand, to solve any arith- 
metical puzzle that any one may choose to place be- 
fore him? Or, last, shall he be able, on call, to rattle 
off the boundaries of Ethiopia? If not, where shall 
the limit be drawn? 

For lack of a definite standard, the selection of 

material for instruction has been made, thus far, 

in an arbitrary way, under no control other than 

that of tradition and individual opinion. The old- 

[28] 



OBSTACLES TO EDUCATIONAL REFORM 

fashioned schoolmaster's method of procedure has 
been bj far the easiest. His plan has been to set 
aside a certain number of hours each week for in- 
struction in a given subject, and, during that time, 
to crowd into the child's mind as many things as 
possible, in the hope that some of them will be re- 
membered, but without any particular regard for the 
question as to what good they would do even if they 
should happen to be retained. The new school of 
educators, on the other hand, has endeavored to 
solve the problem by selecting material that will in- 
terest the child, whereby much has been done to 
relieve the work of needless drudgery. But this 
method, also, has failed to give satisfaction; for, 
while the reformers have criticized the old-fashioned 
system as wasteful, in so far as too many useless 
facts are taught, the criticism passed on the new 
plan of work has been that it is too indefinite, and 
that, in consequence, it destroys the backbone of 
the old system without putting anything definite in 
its place. That so much conflict should exist in 
regard to what ought to be accomplished in each 
branch is not due to the fact that there is no guide 
which will enable us to determine what is our duty. 
It is simply due to the fact that, for want of re- 
search in the proper direction, our notions on the 
subject have never become clear. When the mat- 
ter is regarded in its proper light, it will be seen 
that, in solving the problem "What to teach," the 
individual educator is not entirely free to choose, but 
that, within certain limits, the matter is governed 
by definite laws. By reason of the fact that, within 
[29] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

the prescribed limits, the same laws apply to all 
alike, a study of the laws which govern this matter 
would enable us to find a standard of measurement 
on which all our educators might agree. 

The law by which the selection of material is gov- 
erned is represented, at least in part, by the demands 
of society for a definite amount of positive knowledge 
and skill. That we cannot agree in regard to what 
must be done is due simply to the fact that we are 
not properly acquainted with what is needed. Con- 
sequently, the work which, above all other, should 
now absorb the attention of our educators is that 
work which will lead to definite information in regard 
to what is required, and how much can be expected 
of the child, in individual branches of knowledge. 
When our ideas on this matter are clear, it will be 
possible to secure a selection of material that will 
be no longer provided in an arbitrary way, but will 
be such as to satisfy the demands of all. When we 
are clear in regard to what is needed, it will be pos- 
sible to determine what results in individual branches 
may be deemed satisfactory, and how much time will 
be required to reach this goal. By securing an 
agreement in regard to what must be accomplished 
by all, the educator would not be deprived of his 
individuality. On the contrary, he would be much 
more free than he has ever been; for, so long as the 
demanded results were obtained, he would be at lib- 
erty both to present the desired material in any 
form that he might choose and to do as much else 
as he might deem fit. How the necessary data which 
[30] 



OBSTACLES TO EDUCATIONAL REFORM 

would lead to definite conclusions on this subject 
might be secured will be pointed out later on. 

The establishment of a standard to enable the 
teacher to tell when his task in a given branch has 
been satisfactorily performed constitutes only one 
of the practical problems with which the educator 
is confronted. The remaining problem is concerned 
in the discovery of a standard by which may be de- 
termined how much time it is necessary to devote 
to a subject in order to complete this task. By 
the establishment of such a standard, we should be 
given a basis for testing the comparative economy 
of different educational processes. That the impor- 
tance of labor in this direction cannot be overesti- 
mated becomes apparent when we consider that the 
extent to which the child's education may be broad- 
ened depends almost entirely upon the time required 
to secure satisfactory results in reading, writing, 
and arithmetic. That, at present, we are absolutely 
unable to form an intelligent judgment in regard to 
how much time ought to be consumed in completing 
a piece of work is proved by what has already been 
stated; namely, that educators are not even agreed 
as to whether better spellers will be produced by de- 
voting forty minutes daily to spelling than by de- 
voting not more than five or ten minutes daily to that 
subject; or whether the results secured by a five- 
year course in technical grammar are superior to 
those obtained by a one-year course. 

Our lack of knowledge on this point, however, is 
not due to the fact that nothing positive can be 
[31] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

known in regard to the comparative economy of 
different educational processes. It is due simply to 
the fact that the proper steps have not yet been 
taken which will give us the required information. 
That educators should thus far have failed to throw 
the needed light on the subject may be fully ex- 
plained by the fact that they have endeavored to 
solve the problem by means of hypotheses based on 
psychology, whereas facts alone can tell the tale. In 
a word, they have made the fatal mistake of exactly 
reversing the true order of things. Instead of prov- 
ing the accuracy of their hypotheses by a study of 
the results of a given process, they have endeavored 
to prove, in advance, what the results of methods 
based on these hypotheses must be. The plight into 
which this mode of procedure has brought us will 
become obvious by a simple illustration. 

For example, psychology will permit one to argue 
that ideas will not be clear unless they have absorbed 
the entire attention for a time. This would indicate 
that, in arranging a school programme, it was neces- 
sary to set aside a certain period — entirely arbi- 
trary, however — to be devoted to instruction in 
spelling. On the other hand, we are as fully justified 
in reasoning that in school the child is obliged to 
devote a considerable amount of time to writing; 
that whenever he writes he spells ; and that, in conse- 
quence, it is not necessary to provide any special 
time on the programme for spelling. Which of these 
two methods of reasoning is correct can be deter- 
mined only by a study of results. 

That general psychology, in itself, should fail to 
[32] 



OBSTACLES TO EDUCATIONAL REFORM 

be of direct assistance in determining the question 
of economy of effort is due to the fact that this 
subject is purely a qualitative science, treating of 
the qualities of the mind, while economy of effort in 
teaching is strictly a quantitative problem. Psychol- 
ogy teaches us the laws in accordance with which 
the mind digests ideas ; but it gives us no information 
whatever in regard to the number of ideas that can 
be digested within a given period, or how much time 
is required to complete the digestion of a given num- 
ber of ideas. 

To illustrate : We learn from psychology that the 
concrete precedes the abstract. This has led many 
to believe, for instance, that in the early lessons in 
arithmetic the child should handle objects, in order 
that he may secure a clear conception of the mean- 
ing of numbers. But how many hours of the child's 
school time ought to be consumed in acquiring a clear 
conception of numbers up to ten cannot be learned 
from psychology, being purely a question of expe- 
rience. Again, ias I have already stated, we are all 
agreed that when the child has completed his ele- 
mentary school course he ought to be able to write an 
ordinary letter without gross mistakes in grammar. 
But what amount of time must be devoted to techni- 
cal grammar in order to accomplish this result; 
whether it will necessitate a five-year course, or a 
one-year course, or whether it can be accomplished 
simply through incidental hints — these are questions 
upon which the most learned dissertations on the 
origin and psychology of language cannot throw 
any light whatever. There is only one method by 
[33] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

which such matters can be determined, which is that 
of discovering how much time has been consumed by 
the most successful teachers in reaching a certain 
end. It is only in this way that we shall be able to 
learn how much time it is necessary to consume in 
order to complete a given piece of work, and, again, 
to discover which particular educational processes 
will serve to accomplish a given task by the expendi- 
ture of the smallest amount of time. 

What must be done, then, in order that our system 
of education may be placed on a secure foundation 
is to institute researches toward obtaining facts that 
will lead, first, to the establishment of standards by 
which the teacher may be able to determine when his 
task in a given branch has been satisfactorily per- 
formed ; and, secondly, to the establishment of stand- 
ards which will enable us to judge how much time 
is needed to secure a definite result. Once these 
truths are recognized, the factional lines between 
conservatives and radicals will cease to exist, and 
all will become co-laborers in the discovery of the 
laws that apply to all our educators, regardless of 
pedagogical creed. 

In order to test the feasibility of researches such 
as I have outlined, I have devoted the past two years 
to examining children taught by every conceivable 
method, in schools representing a very large section 
of our country. By means of examinations in a 
number of school branches — spelling, penmanship, 
English composition, and arithmetic — I hoped to be 
able, first, to establish certain goals through the 
discovery of what our children might reasonably be 
[34] 



OBSTACLES TO EDUCATIONAL REFORM 

expected to accomplish; and, secondly, by a com- 
parison of results, to arrive at some definite con- 
clusions concerning the comparative economy of 
different methods of teaching. The number of chil- 
dren examined has thus far reached nearly one 
hundred thousand; and care was exercised to secure 
exact information, not only in regard to the methods 
employed, but also in regard to the age, nationality, 
and environment of the children, in order that the 
influence of conditions might be duly taken into 
consideration. These examinations have brought 
some things to light, which, in my opinion, are des- 
tined to destroy many of our preconceived notions. 
The results will be published in detail during the 
course of this work. 

The labor involved in taking the tests, in marking 
the papers, and in the preparation of the very elabo- 
rate statistical tables has been so great as to require 
the undivided attention of myself and a number of 
special assistants. Although for individual enter- 
prise the undertaking may be considered as almost 
unwieldy, I have become fully convinced, as the 
result of my researches, that, by means of concerted 
efforts on the part of teachers, or by the establish- 
ment of a bureau supported by our National Govern- 
ment, not only would the work become comparatively 
simple, but it would lead to the very speedy solution 
of a number of vital educational questions, and would 
thus serve, in a comparatively brief period, to place 
our schools on a rational foundation. Moreover a 
study of this nature would lead, inductively, to the 
development of an educational psychology, of which 

[35] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

we have long been speaking, but which, in fact, does 
not jet exist. 

In closing, I desire once more to emphasize tlu^ 
point I hat the plan proposed in this chapter would 
not had to the destruction of the individuality of 
the teacher, but that, on the contrary, it woidd 
mean a degree of individual freedom far beyond any 
that has been hitherto enjoyed. While the necessity 
for completing a definite task in each school branch 
is recognized, notlilng is co!itained in the plan that 
would Interfere with the employment of any peda- 
gogical scheme, or wllh the devi'lopment of the child 
In any direction, so long as the teacher would be able, 
by her methods, to secure the stipulated results. 
And, in my opinion. It Is not initil the standards that 
I have pointed out shall have been established that 
we shall have an Inti'lllgent basis upon which to con- 
struct a course of study, or to apportion the time 
in the arrangemeid of a school progrannne, or to 
form the slightest conception concerning the possi- 
bilities of elementary education. 



[36] 



Ill 

THE ESSENTIALS IN ELEMENTARY EDUCATION * 

In the preceding chapter I discussed the possi- 
bility of securing satisfactory results in the so-called 
essentials if the course of study in the elementary 
schools were materially enriched. I argued that 
nothing definite could now be said on this subject, 
because no agreement had yet been reached, either 
in regard to what is essential, or as to what results 
in individual branches may be deemed satisfactory. 
Until our ideas are clear on these matters, we shall 
of course be unable to estimate how much time it is 
necessary to devote to the formal studies, and how 
much should be set aside for work that is purely 
educative in its nature. 

Before it will be possible to decide how far the 
curriculum may be safely broadened, then, two ques- 
tions will have to be answered much more satisfac- 
torily than has been thus far the case. In the first 
place, it will be necessary to arrive at a much clearer 
understanding as to which of the things commonly 
taught in the elementary schools are in fact essential, 
and which of them could be eliminated without ma- 
terial detriment to the child; and, secondly, it will 
be incumbent upon us to establish standards that 
^January, 1897 
[37] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

will serve as guides in enabling us to tell how much 
time is required to cover satisfactorily the indispen- 
sable ground. In the present chapter, I shall try to 
throw some light on the first of these questions, 
while the next will be devoted to a discussion of the 
second. 

In endeavoring to define the legitimate limits of 
the positive knowledge and skill that may be regarded 
as essential, a process of exclusion will be required. 
It will be necessary to exclude, first, matters belong- 
ing to the category of mental gymnastics, i.e., meas- 
ures introduced into the school course solely with a 
view to the development of the faculties, and, second- 
ly, matters of detail that the layman is not expected 
to possess in the form of ready knowledge, and which 
are found in the school course simply because they 
have been handed down by tradition. 

At present the time devoted to the three R's alone, 
in the mechanical schools, is about 70 per cent. It 
might be possible, however, through a process of 
exclusion such as I have indicated, to reduce this 
time by 50 per cent or more. Indeed, so great might 
be the change brought about that what is now re- 
garded as the body of the work of the elementary 
school might, perhaps, become merely a side issue. 
If this should be true, then naturally the possibilities 
of enriching the course of study would be almost 
unlimited. Moreover, the exclusion of unnecessary 
material would form only one part of the reduction 
in cime. An equal reduction might be secured by an 
exercise of economy in actual teaching — a subject 
that will be discussed in the next chapter. 
[38] 



ESSENTIALS IN ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 

As I have drawn a line between the essentials in 
a course of study and measures of educational dis- 
cipline, it may be thought that I do not appreciate 
the value of the latter. This, however, is by no 
means the case. My reason for making the distinc- 
tion is that, while I am of the opinion that the people 
are fully justified in demanding certain results in 
matters of useful knowledge and skill, I believe that 
in questions of educational discipline no universal 
course should be laid down, but that considerable 
freedom should be allowed to the exercise of judg- 
ment on the part of individual educators. The prob- 
lem of mental gymnastics is still so completely veiled 
in obscurity, and opinions among educators in regard 
to the relative values of disciplinary measures vary 
so markedly, that dogmatism is entirely unjustifiable. 

While some educators believe that the most valu- 
able disciplinary work lies in pushing the formal 
branches of study beyond a reasonable point, others 
are of the opinion that the disciplinary value of the 
formal studies is far inferior to that involved in 
content studies ; and that, in consequence, the time 
not devoted to instruction in what is actually indis- 
pensable, in the formal lines, should be devoted to 
such branches as the arts, the sciences, history, and 
literature — subjects having a direct influence in 
developing aesthetic taste, as well as interest in nature 
and humanity. It follows, therefore, that while the 
individual educator oversteps the limits of his au- 
thority when he fails to give due recognition to the 
conventional side of education, the people overstep 
their authority when they needlessly condemn the 
[39] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

child to a life of drudgery, and deprive him of elevat- 
ing influences, by demanding more than their due in 
the way of conventionalities. 

One more point requires to be mentioned before 
entering into the discussion of details. It may be 
argued that, as our ideals are not fixed, the essentials 
of a school course cannot be clearly defined. While 
it is true that the demands of society are constantly 
changing, and that what may now be regarded as 
useful knowledge may not be so regarded at some 
indefinite period in the future, history nevertheless 
proves that the process of evolution is so slow, that, 
if standards should be set in accordance with the 
demands of to-day, they would answer the purpose 
for many years to come. Indeed, I do not think it 
an exaggeration to say, that, if standards should 
once be fixed, the labor involved in changing them, 
to keep pace with the process of evolution, would 
be, figuratively speaking, as insignificant as that 
involved in repairing a building, from time to time, 
as required by ordinary wear and tear. 

The time may arrive when every individual will 
be permitted to spell as he chooses. But the educa- 
tor who to-day should prepare his pupils for such 
an era would not be entitled to encouragement. Nor 
are we justified in believing that the period is near 
at hand when neat and legible writing will be no 
longer regarded as a necessary accomplishment. 
Again, the ability to use good English and facility 
in handling figures will not grow out of fashion 
within the next decade. Taken all in all, then, what- 
ever may be said of the evolution of pedagogical 
[40] 



ESSENTIALS IN ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 

ideas, we cannot consider as serious any arguments 
to the effect that, because we do not know exactly 
what the future may bring forth, we cannot tell what 
should now be taught in the elementary schools. 

The dividing line between positive knowledge and 
skill, on the one hand, and mental gymnastics, on the 
other, may be made clear by a simple illustration. 

Society expects, for example, that the individual 
shall be able to write a letter in well-constructed sen- 
tences and without grammatical errors. It is not 
concerned, however, as to whether or not the writer 
is able to analyze the sentences or to parse the words 
in his letter. If facts should prove, beyond question, 
that individuals who could parse and analyze with 
facility were able to construct better sentences 
than those who were unfamiliar with technical gram- 
mar, this subject might rightly be placed among the 
essentials of school work. If, however, it should 
be proved that the English employed by those who 
had not studied technical grammar was practically 
as good as that employed by those who had had a 
thorough grounding in the subject, then it could not 
be regarded as essential, but would belong to the do- 
main of mental gymnastics. 

In the latter case, the question of introducing 
technical grammar into the school course would be 
purely and simply a problem of relative values, i.e., 
a question as to whether it would pay better to 
devote, say, thirty minutes daily, for four or five 
years, to grammar, or whether more profit would be 
derived by devoting this time to matters of impor- 
tance and interest now crowded out of many of our 
[41] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

schools on the plea of lack of time. Whether, or in 
how far, it is possible to lead the child to use good 
English without instruction in technical grammar 
is an entirely different question. It is one, however, 
that cannot be decided by a priori reasoning. Noth- 
ing short of the study of results will suffice to bring 
the truth to light. 

As in language, so in arithmetic, the question of 
mental gymnastics plays a prominent part. While 
facility in ciphering, to a certain point, is demanded 
of every individual, whatever is done in this branch 
beyond what is directly useful and practical must be 
regarded as disciplinary in its nature. Consequently, 
the question arises, whether, in the arrangement of a 
school programme, it is advisable to allow a certain 
amount of time for purely disciplinary arithmetic, 
or whether this time might not bring a greater return 
if given to matters more directly destined to elevate 
our social ideals. 

The importance of such questions of relative 
values becomes strikingly apparent when we consider 
that thirty-five minutes a day is equivalent to an 
entire year out of the eight devoted to elementary 
education. Therefore, by economizing only a little 
here and there, by the exclusion of merely a part of 
the disciplinary measures of minor or doubtful im- 
portance — such as drill in arithmetical puzzles, in 
superfine penmanship, in parsing and analysis be- 
yond what is actually needed — it might be possible 
to save as much as the equivalent of two school 
years, which might then be utilized toward enriching 
the course of study, without in any way neglecting 
[42] 



ESSENTIALS IN ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 

the essentials. When the time wasted in reading 
aloud merely with a view to the development of 
oratorical power is taken into consideration, the 
estimate of two years is probably too conservative. 

When the purely disciplinary elements in instruc- 
tion are clearly determined, one step will have been 
made toward defining the limits of the indispensable. 
The next point will lie in a process of exclusion 
applied to matters of detail that lie beyond what 
the individual may be reasonably expected to possess 
in the way of ready knowledge and skill. This would 
mean, in large part, the elimination of many things 
now taught in the schools, not because they are sup- 
posed to meet any particular requirement, but simply 
because no concerted effort has ever been made to 
exclude them from the traditional course of study. 

The subjects that, without harm in any direction, 
will bear a rigid test of exclusion are spelling and 
penmanship. Every moment devoted to these subjects 
beyond what is actually needed may be regarded 
as wasted. When we consider that, in spite of their 
lack of educational value, nearly one-fifth of the 
time in some of our schools is devoted to these two 
subjects, it becomes apparent that the importance 
of exercising economy in teaching these branches 
cannot be overestimated. In determining the ground 
to be covered in spelling, it is necessary simply to 
secure an agreement as to where the line may be 
drawn between words that the average individual 
ought to be able to spell without referring to a dic- 
tionary and those that might be safely relegated to 
the latter. This would lead to the omission of a very 

[43] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

large number of words now taught in the schools and 
which the child may never be called upon to use. 

In penmanship, it will be necessary to determine 
what standards of legibility may be deemed satis- 
factory. Owing to the importance of this subject, I 
beg to repeat what I stated in the preceding chap- 
ter, namely, that overattention to penmanship, for 
the purpose of securing elegant writing, may mean 
the waste, both directly and indirectly, of an enor- 
mous amount of time. As the child, during the entire 
school course, is obliged to do considerable writing, 
apart from that intended to improve his penmanship, 
undue slowness in the use of the pen must be regarded 
as a waste of time against which provision should 
be made. 

In arithmetic, aside from the disciplinary element, 
the question of how much ground it is necessary to 
cover in order that the pupil may be sufficiently well 
equipped to meet the ordinary demands of life re- 
quires careful consideration. By exercising a wise 
process of exclusion, the course might be consider- 
ably abbreviated. It would be necessary here to 
make a careful distinction between those parts of 
arithmetic with which every one ought to be con- 
versant, and those parts concerning the more com- 
plicated calculations belonging to special lines of 
business, and which need to be mastered only by the 
specialist. 

In English, in addition to the problem of mental 
discipline, the question as to how high the goal 
should be placed comes into play. In written lan- 
guage, limitations that do not appear in any other 
[ 44 ] 



ESSENTIALS IN ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 

subject are set by the immaturity of the child-mind. 
In other branches, however high the goal may be 
placed, there is a reasonable assurance that it will 
be reached, provided the instruction be thorough, 
and ample time be provided for the purpose. In 
composition, however, in establishing our aims, the 
powers of the child must be taken into consideration. 
Consequently, before instruction in this subject can 
be conducted without undue waste, it will be neces- 
sary to learn just what the child is able to do under 
the most favorable circumstances. When we have 
learned what the most successful teachers have ac- 
complished, and how much time they expended in 
reaching their ends, we shall have a sensible basis for 
determining what may be reasonably expected of the 
child, and how much time it is wise to devote to this 
branch. 

Complaints to the effect that the results in written 
language are highly unsatisfactory are commonly 
heard from individuals in all walks of life, and par- 
ticularly from instructors in high schools and uni- 
versities. As the unsatisfactory results are usually 
attributed to insufficient attention to the subject in 
the elementary schools, the demand is made that still 
more time be devoted to English. But if the cir- 
cumstances should be such that it was impossible to 
lead the average child beyond a certain point, how- 
ever great the pressure might be, then of course the 
time expended in endeavoring to do so would be 
wasted. 

An important point to be decided before definite 
goals can be established is the question of literary 
[45] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

style. When we know the average child's limitations 
in this direction, we shall be able to tell whether or 
not it will pay to spend a great deal of time in en- 
deavoring to lead the pupil to acquire the ability 
to write an original story, a reproduction, or a 
description, in good style, on the first draft. Again, 
we shall be able to determine whether or not time 
and energy expended in rewriting will be sufficiently 
rewarded to warrant the teacher in compelling the 
child to labor over a composition until he feels that 
he can no longer improve it. That the pupil may 
be trained to appreciate good literary style when 
he finds it in the writings of others is quite possible ; 
but whether he can be trained to imitate it in his 
own writings is an entirely different question. 

Next, geography, and particularly that phase 
which treats of the location of places, the boundaries 
of states and countries, the length of rivers, the 
height of mountains, etc., offers a broad field for ex- 
clusion without true loss in any particular. How 
much waste there is in the old-fashioned method of 
teaching this subject becomes apparent when we con- 
sider how exceedingly little the average individual 
has to show, a year or two after leaving school, for 
the numerous hours a week, during five or six years, 
devoted to this study. And not only from the stand- 
point of economy, but for other reasons as well, 
would the elimination of cut-and-dricd facts, that 
properly belong to books of reference, exert a most 
salutary effect. For, while geography when treated 
in the traditional manner is one of the most burden- 
some subjects in the curriculum, yet, when the mat- 
[46] 



ESSENTIALS IN ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 

tcrs of minor importance are excluded, and sub- 
stituted by valuable ideas, it becomes converted into 
perhaps the broadest as well as the most interesting 
in the entire list of school branches. While the num- 
ber of facts in topographical geography that the 
individual is required to know in order that he may 
be able to take an intelligent interest in the affairs 
of the world is considerable, it is, nevertheless, very 
small when compared with that which the child is 
compelled to acquire in the traditional course of in- 
struction. Indeed, so great, in my opinion, is the 
discrepancy between what the child is compelled to 
memorize in the old-fashioned schools and what the 
citizen is expected to know, that I do not regard 
it as an exaggeration to say that the traditional 
course in topographical geography might be short- 
ened by 70 or 80 per cent without neglecting what is 
useful. 

Last, I desire to call attention to the waste in a 
mechanical course in history. As in geography, so 
in this study would the preparation of a list of facts, 
limited to what is helpful and what the individual 
may be expected to possess as ready knowledge, 
bring about an enormous reduction in memory ma- 
terial. Of course, there are many facts that the 
individual ought to know and that every educated 
person is expected to know. But just what these 
facts are, and how many might be excluded, without 
impairment, from the traditional course, are matters 
that have never been properly determined. By a 
wise substitution of historical ideas for cut-and-dried 
facts of minor importance, history, like geography, 
[47] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

would be converted from a mechanical study into a 
most valuable and interesting one. 

What is needed, then, in order that a beginning 
may be made toward the solution of the problem of 
the course of study, is to undertake measures that 
will speedily lead to a clear definition of the essen- 
tials. In my opinion, the most rational plan would 
be to place the matter in the hands of committees, 
appointed preferably by the National Educational 
Association. If committees of, say, ten members 
should be appointed for each branch, the labor so 
divided that proper attention could be paid to de- 
tails, and meetings held at frequent intervals, enough 
might be done in a single year to clear the course 
of study at least of those matters that are retained 
simply by tradition. 

In drawing conclusions in regard to what to retain 
and what to omit, ordinary experience would suffice 
to set the matter well under way. For the rest, it 
would be necessary to undertake researches leading 
to the discovery of the exact limits of our social 
demands. But the latter course would represent a 
later stage, which might be carried on in a more 
leisurely manner. In order that the work might be 
thoroughly conducted, a special appropriation 
should be made by the Government, to be placed at 
the disposal of the Association. 

Besides defining the essentials, it will be necessary 
to secure standards that will give us a basis for 
judging what results in the essentials may be deemed 
satisfactory; and not until we have these standards 
can it be determined how much pressure it is ad- 
[48] 



ESSENTIALS IN ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 

visable to put on the conventional side of school 
work, and which methods of teaching are the most 
economical in point of time. But, to obtain such 
standards, ordinary experience will not avail: noth- 
ing short of careful research, on a very broad basis, 
will supply the needed information. 

In our country, where elementary education is 
characterized by absence of system, it is not unusual 
for individuals, whether educators or laymen, to 
examine a class on a set of questions selected in an 
arbitrary way, and to judge by the results whether 
or not the teacher has done satisfactory work. So 
long, however, as we have no standards, judgment 
based on the results of an examination, in a single 
room, school, or city, is not only absolutely worth- 
less, but may mean a gross injustice in estimating 
both the qualifications of the teachers and the value 
of the methods employed by them. Under existing 
conditions, there is only one way in which definite 
information in this matter can be obtained. It is 
by extending a reasonable test to a large number of 
classes, in different localities, so that all methods 
and conditions may be represented, and by judging 
of the results on a comparative basis. In this man- 
ner we are enabled to learn what results were secured 
by teachers in general, which classes exceeded and 
which fell below the average, and how much time 
was consumed by different methods in securing the 
various results. It is only in this way that we can 
judge whether the results obtained in any particular 
class, school, or city may be regarded as satisfac- 
tory. 

[49] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

It was with a view to the development of standards 
for measuring results, as well as to discover the most 
economical methods of teaching, that the tests in 
spelling, penmanship, composition, and arithmetic, 
to which I have referred, were made. In penmanship 
and composition, it is of course a simple matter to 
employ tests that are universally applicable. In 
spelling and arithmetic, although the ground cov- 
ered in different cities varies considerably in regard 
to details, I nevertheless found that, by exercising 
carej the tests might be so formulated that they 
would cover a common ground, and thus be suitable 
for the schools of any locality. In spelling, three 
different tests were employed. One was a column 
of fifty words; another consisted of sentences, fifty 
test words being employed in the lower, and seventy- 
five in the upper grades ; and, third, the spelling in 
the composition test was examined. In arithmetic, 
the questions were so arranged as to fit the various 
grades. In penmanship, the general written work 
was used as a test. And, finally, in composition, I 
employed as a test the reproduction of a story read 
by the teacher to the children. This story was writ- 
ten specially for the purpose, and was accompanied 
by a picture intended to aid the children in their 
work. The grades examined included the fourth to 
the eighth school years. The results are given in 
detail in future chapters. 

While such work as this represents only a tem- 
porary stage in the development of standards, I 
nevertheless believe that it will suffice to lead to 
definite information on the most important educa- 
[50] 



ESSENTIALS IN ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 

tional problem of the day; namely, whether or not 
it is possible to broaden the curriculum without 
detriment to the three R's. To reach a conclusion 
on this point, it is but necessary to learn whether 
or not the results in the formal studies obtained in 
the progressive schools compare favorably with the 
results in the formal lines obtained in the mechanical 
schools. If the pupils educated in the schools in 
which the bulk of the work is thoughtful and inter- 
esting should do as well in the formal studies as those 
brought up in the schools where the work is almost 
entirely formal, the feasibility of the new education 
would be practically proved. 

Until the essentials are clearly defined, then, the 
question of satisfactory results must be decided on a 
purely comparative basis. For, so long as the 
ground to be covered represents a very wide area, 
and no discrimination is made between matters of 
primary and those of secondary importance, the re- 
sults of an examination in a given school might be 
apparently so unfavorable as to convey the impres- 
sion j:hat the teaching had lacked in thoroughness, 
while in fact the results would compare quite favor- 
ably with those secured in other schools. By a 
comparative study of results, even on a much nar- 
rower basis than I have indicated, a great deal might 
be accomplished in a very brief period toward the 
solution of the problem of methods. It would simply 
be necessary for superintendents and teachers in 
nieghboring localities to cooperate in a series of 
tests which would show the rate of progress under 
different methods. 

[51] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

When the requirements in positive knowledge and 
skill are limited to a reasonable point, the ideas will 
have an opportunity to become more thoroughly 
assimilated, and definite results may be demanded. 
Under these circumstances, it is possible that, in the 
course of time, absolute standards might be devel- 
oped, so that it would be no longer necessary to draw 
comparisons on a wide basis before reaching conclu- 
sions in regard to the qualifications of a particular 
teacher or the excellence of a particular school. 



[52] 



IV 

ECONOMY OF TIME IN TEACHING ^ 

Having shown in the preceding chapter how con- 
siderable waste might be eliminated in the elementary 
schools through the exclusion of matters that did 
not appear to answer any definite purpose, I shall, 
in the present chapter, endeavor to point out what 
might be done toward the elimination of waste in 
actual teaching; thus providing still further op- 
portunity for the introduction of purely educative 
material. 

Of course, until an understanding is reached as to 
what is indispensable in an elementary-school course, 
and our goals are established accordingly, the study 
of the time element in teaching will be to some extent 
hampered. Nevertheless, the problem presents spe- 
cial features of its own that admit of separate con- 
sideration. 

The point at issue involves the discovery of pro- 
cesses which, other things being equal, will perform 
a given task in the smallest amount of time. As 
reliable information of this nature can be obtained 
only by comparing results, the problem will bear 
solution only in so far as results can be approxi- 
mately measured. Having no means at hand with 
* February, 1897. 
[5S] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

which to measure general intellectual strength, we 
are not able definitely to determine what methods of 
intellectual training will accomplish most in a given 
period ; so that the relative economy of measures of 
mental gymnastics must remain, at least for the 
near future, purely a matter of speculation. Posi- 
tive knowledge and skill, however, being directly 
amenable to measurement, it lies within our reach to 
ascertain the time consumed by different teachers 
in obtaining certain positive results, as well as to 
discover what processes have proved the most eco- 
nomical. That, in spite of our extended experience 
with a great variety of methods, this problem is still 
awaiting solution is due to the fact that the results 
of our experiments have never been so utilized as to 
lead to the discovery of scientific truths. 

The fundamental points in the time element in 
teaching to which I shall direct particular attention 
are: (1) the limits of incidental instruction; (2) the 
influence of fatigue; and (3) the question of mental 
maturity. 

Of these factors, that of incidental teaching is, 
under existing conditions, perhaps the most im- 
portant. About 70 per cent of the time in some of 
our schools being devoted to the formal branches, 
a radical change would be effected if the forms of 
expression — reading, spelling, penmanship, gram- 
mar, and language — were taught as incidental feat- 
ures. Indeed, much would be gained if results should 
prove that the formal studies could be subordinated, 
even if to a limited extent only, to the content 
studies. The possibility of incidental instruction de- 
[54] 



ECONOMY OF TIME IN TEACHING 

pends upon whether or not we are able to do more 
than one thing well at a time. If so, then some 
mental labor must necessarily be performed by sub- 
ordinate states of attention or consciousness, and 
the practicability of incidental instruction will de- 
pend upon whether such can be utilized in teaching. 
That the performance of more than one act at a 
time is not only possible, but under certain condi- 
tions inevitable, is clearly shown by the fact that, 
in writing a composition, it is necessary to attend 
simultaneously to at least four distinct elements — 
thought, language, spelling, and penmanship. To 
what extent incidental instruction may be carried 
can be discovered only by a study of results. As in 
some of our progressive schools the work in the 
formal branches has been tending for some years 
toward incidental instruction, opportunity is already 
offered for such study. In endeavoring to solve the 
problem by discussion, our educators are only wast- 
ing energy and losing valuable time. 

The possibilities of incidental instruction are not 
limited to the formal studies, but extend to the con- 
tent studies as well. In the latter, however, the 
ground covered in the different schools varies so 
markedly that we are unable to formulate tests 
which will lead to the comparative study of results. 
Investigation in the content studies will not be fruit- 
ful, therefore, until our goals are more definite and 
our notions clearer in regard to what results in 
these branches may be regarded as satisfactory. 
Moreover, as most of the time in the mechanical 
schools is devoted to the formal branches, incidental 
[55] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

instruction in the content studies is a less urgent 
problem, at least for the present, than it is in the 
case of the formal ones. 

When I speak of incidental instruction, I do not 
mean that satisfactory results might be secured if 
a branch were left to take care of itself. Incidental 
instruction, to be worthy the name, is not a laissez- 
faire system, but must be as carefully planned and 
as thoroughly and systematically conducted as if the 
subject were separately taught. If the teacher, 
for instance, should act on the theory that, in time, 
the pupil would learn to write neatly and legibly 
just because he writes, and accordingly would accept 
manuscript in any form in which it was presented, 
she would not be imparting incidental instruction, 
but would simply be neglecting penmanship. Inci- 
dental instruction in that branch would be repre- 
sented by a consistent effort on the part of the 
teacher to secure neatness and legibility in every- 
thing that was written. Whether it is possible to 
carry this out, with little or no special drill in pen- 
manship after the forms of the letters have been 
learned, is purely a matter of experience. 

The second factor, mental fatigue, relates directly 
to the apportionment of time to individual branches. 
Experience proves that the results of teaching do 
not necessarily correspond to the amount of time 
devoted to a branch, or, in other words, that an 
increase in time beyond a certain point does not lead 
to a proportionate increase in results. In order that 
the labor may be fully rewarded, a lesson must close 
at the proper point, and work in that particular 
[56] 



ECONOMY OF TIME IN TEACHING 

subject must not be resumed until the mind is again 
ready for it. In this problem, therefore, a double 
element is involved: first, the length of a recitation; 
and, secondly, the frequency of recitations in a given 
subject. 

Closely related to the question of fatigue is that 
of the powers of mental assimilation. The number 
of ideas that can be digested in a given period is 
limited, and therefore in the apportionment of time 
the question of assimilation must be considered as 
well as that of fatigue. The two are, indeed, so 
closely connected that it is impossible to say where 
the dividing line should be drawn. 

The arrangement of a school programme on a 
purely logical basis may involve, therefore, an enor- 
mous waste of time, for more reasons than one. In 
a recitation sixty minutes in length, twice as much 
ground can be covered, it is true, as in a recitation 
only thirty minutes in length; and, again, in four 
recitations a week in a given subject, twice as much 
ground can be covered as in two. It is not, how- 
ever, the number of ideas presented to the child, 
but only those assimilated, that count. An in- 
dividual who takes twice as much food as another 
does not on that account weigh twice as much. In- 
deed, one who loads his digestive organs with more 
food than can be absorbed by the system may not 
thrive so well as one who takes no more than he can 
digest, and thus saves those organs from a needless 
strain. 

In the old-fashioned system, where the material 
for instruction is selected largely on the principle 
[57] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

of filling out time, matters are poured into the mind 
without regard to its assimilative powers. Under 
this, the cramming method, facts may be remem- 
bered for a brief period; but, failing absorption, 
they are likely soon to fall into oblivion. By ex- 
traordinary pressure, enough ideas may be crowded 
into the mind to enable one to pass a good examina- 
tion on an appointed day; but many of them will 
be forgotten so quickly that the results secured In 
an examination unexpectedly given only a few weeks 
later will not be nearly so favorable. 

Again, the brain-cells might reach the saturation 
point for one class of ideas, but be still in perfect 
condition to absorb ideas of another kind, just as 
the amount of food of one kind that can be assimi- 
lated in a given time is no indication of how much 
can be assimilated if it is presented in proper vari- 
ety. Thus, by carefully distributing the work, we 
might secure a full return in a great variety of 
subjects, while the same amount of time devoted to 
a few subjects might involve considerable waste. 

That the results in a given subject are not deter- 
mined by the amount of time devoted to it is clearly 
indicated by the fact that in Germany, although 
the classes are fully as large as they are here, the 
children in the first few years, with only three hours' 
daily instruction, appear to thrive on reading, pen- 
manship, language, arithmetic, geography, nature- 
study, literature, religion, music, and drawing. 
Moreover, what is learned in the German schools 
is learned thoroughly. 

When viewed from this standpoint, overburdening 
[58] 



ECONOMY OF TIME IN TEACHING 

the course does not mean teaching a large number 
of subjects, but introducing so many details in the 
subjects taught that certain brain-cells must neces- 
sarily labor beyond the point of fatigue and beyond 
the power of assimilation in order that the specified 
ground may be covered. What the length of a 
recitation period should be, and how much should 
be taught in a single lesson, can only be deduced 
from the results of years of teaching. 

The number of recitations a week in a subject 
must be determined by the amount of time required 
for brain-cells that have been in active operation 
fully to recover their strength, and again be pre- 
pared for the process of assimilation. If they are 
set to work earlier, they labor under unfavorable 
conditions, and less will be accomplished in a given 
time than if the recuperation had been complete. 
And it is, in fact, an open question whether the 
results of five recitations per week in a given sub- 
ject will be much greater than those secured by 
three. This point can only be determined by com- 
paring the results obtained under a different ap- 
portionment of time. If, in particular instances, 
the results of instruction are not satisfactory, it is 
absolutely unsafe to draw the conclusion, as our 
conservative citizens are apt to do, that not enough 
time has been devoted to the subject. Before de- 
ciding, it would be wiser to learn whether the time 
set aside for the purpose had been properly em- 
ployed. In recent years, fatigue, as an element in 
education, has received considerable attention; but 
the observations thus far made are only of sugges- 
[59] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

tive value, and will not directly aid in settling the 
points here discussed. 

The third factor presented in our problem, men- 
tal maturity, concerns the period of school life when 
the various branches of study may be most profit- 
ably begun. If subjects are presented too early, 
the process of assimilation will be slow and imper- 
fect ; while, if reserved for the proper period, pos- 
sibly as much might be accomplished in a single 
year as otherwise in three or four years. 

The subjects at present offering the most fruitful 
field for research of this nature are arithmetic and 
technical grammar. In regard to the former, the 
belief is growing that the time given to it in the first 
two or three years is in large part wasted, or, in 
other words, that if children should begin arithmetic 
in earnest at the age of nine or ten, they would soon 
overtake those who began at five or six. Whether 
or not this is true cannot be determined without 
positive data. The suggestion, however, is a valu- 
able one. To solve the question, it is necessary to 
compare the results secured by pupils whose early 
education in arithmetic has been neglected, with the 
results obtained by those who have passed through 
a systematic course from the start. 

In technical grammar a still more positive stand 
is taken. While in a few schools this subject is 
begun in the fourth year, and in most schools in 
the fifth, it is the opinion of many educators that all 
the time devoted to it below the eighth year, if not 
below the high school, is wasted. This again can 
be learned from results only. 
[60] 



ECONOMY OF TIME IN TEACHING 

To guard against waste in apportioning the time 
for instruction in individual branches constitutes 
only one part of the problem of educational economy. 
The other lies in the elimination of waste in the 
process of teaching; for, if the time is not profitably 
employed, the specified results will not be obtained 
within the allotted period. 

In teaching, both science and art are brought into 
play. Science tells us, for example, that the great- 
est amount of labor is performed with a given 
amount of energy when the channels of least re- 
sistance are employed. This condition obtains in 
teaching when the ideas are introduced through 
channels that naturally appeal to the interests of 
the child. When the instruction is interesting, it 
will attract the attention and hold it during the 
recitation. If, on the other hand, the child is not 
interested, his mind will wander, and either he will 
not attend at all, or his attention will be incomplete ; 
a part of the energy being wasted in overcoming 
the elements of distraction. As the time at the dis- 
posal of the teacher will not be fully utilized unless 
the mind of every child is at work, interest must 
be regarded as a fundamental factor in educational 
economy. To render instruction so interesting as 
to keep the mind of every child occupied will re- 
quire intuition, judgment, and experience, as well 
as a knowledge of the theory of teaching. 

A second point lies in securing a condition favor- 
able to the assimilation of ideas. It is not enough 
to render instruction interesting. It is necessary 
as well to create a state of mental hunger — a desire 
[61] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

for further knowledge when the recitation is over — 
so that the next lesson on the subject will be im- 
patiently awaited. When the child is thus prepared 
for the acquisition of new ideas, and these ideas are 
presented at the proper moment, the process of 
assimilation will be most active. Therefore, although 
the powers of assimilation are limited, it yet lies 
within our reach to produce a mental attitude that 
will insure the greatest possible absorption of 
ideas. To carry this point successfully will tax the 
teacher's ingenuity to the utmost. 

The third important factor for the elimination 
of waste in teaching lies in taking into account the 
individuality of the pupils. A teacher in charge 
of fifty children cannot, of course, be expected to 
consider all their peculiarities. Nevertheless, a great 
deal might be done if only this one point should re- 
ceive attention, viz. : the differences in the degree 
of facility with which pupils grasp particular 
branches. Recitations properly adapted to one who 
readily comprehends new principles in a given sub- 
ject cannot be followed with advantage by one who 
experiences great difficulty in learning them. Con- 
sequently, the teacher should avoid placing such 
pupils in the same group, or in some other way 
should exercise her ingenuity toward remedying the 
more glaring defects of this nature. The teacher 
will find an abundance of opportunity for the exer- 
cise of judgment by so instructing the class that, so 
far as possible, each child shall make even progress 
in the various branches of the grade. 

To attain this end, a child who was quick in 
[62] 



ECONOMY OF TIME IN TEACHING 

arithmetic and slow in spelling, for example, might 
be excused more or less frequently from the regular 
recitations in the former, and be permitted to devote 
the time to the latter. Or, again, the brightest 
pupils might perform a valuable service in the way 
of individual instruction by helping those who are 
slow. To some extent a plan of mutual assistance 
might be instituted whereby children would help 
their comrades in one branch, and receive assistance 
from them in another. Teachers who have tried 
some such plan as this have found that children 
are often more successful than they themselves in 
clearing away the difficulties. One who has recently 
passed through certain difficulties appears better to 
understand where they lie than one who guesses at 
them from reminiscences or on purely theoretical 
grounds. 

Finally, much waste is involved in keeping a child 
back because a low mark in one or two branches 
reduces his general average below the standard re- 
quired for promotion. To compel a child to spend 
six months or a year in going over perfectly familiar 
ground in geography and arithmetic because he had 
failed in spelling and grammar, is, in truth, not 
wasting time, but stealing it; and it is worse than 
ordinary theft, because stolen time can never be 
replaced. Moreover, such an error of judgment in 
regard to promotion may rob the child of all am- 
bition, kill his interest in intellectual work, and turn 
the entire current of his life. 

Having pointed out the principles upon which 
an ideal system of education might be founded, I 
[63] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN RDUCATION 

shall, in future cliaj)ters, discuss tho data that I 
have collected through the practical application of 
these principles. As ihe problem is endless in its 
ramifications, I do not entertain the hope that my 
facts — which show the results of teachin^^j in the 
case of a very large number of children — will be 
accepted as a positive solution. I shall, indeed, feel 
that my labor has been amply re})aid if they should 
do no more than convince my readers that our ele- 
mentary schools are conducted without regard to 
economy of effort, and that, so long as this condi- 
tion prevails, the possibilities of elementary educa- 
tion will remain an unknown quantity. 



[61] 



In tlic opening chapters, I endeavored to prove 
that the first step toward placing elementary edu- 
cation on a scientific basis must necessarily lie in 
determining what results might be reasonably ex- 
pected at the end of a given period of instruction. 
I there contended that if we had no definite notions 
in regard to what our teachers ought to accomplish, 
our ideas must be doubly vague as to how much 
time need be devoted to each branch. And, so long 
as this question remains unanswered, no well-founded 
opinion can be given concerning the possibility of 
broadening the course of study without detriment 
to the formal branches — the point around which the 
entire problem of educational reform revolves. 

Believing that the most rational method of deter- 
mining what our teachers might be expected to ac- 
complish would lie in discovering what results the 
more successful ones had been able to obtain, I ven- 
tured to undertake the series of research(,\s to which 
I have called attention, in the hope that it might 
serve as an initial step toward bringing this problem 
to a solution. And it is to the discussion of the 
data thus collected that this and the remaining 
chapters will be devoted. 

» April, 1897. 
165] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

The material to be submitted in this chapter and 
the next is intended to show what our teachers have 
accomplished in spelling, and what, therefore, may 
be reasonably demanded of our schools in that sub- 
ject. The traditional standard in spelling is per- 
fection ; but this standard is unreasonable, and can- 
not be too soon abandoned. In view of the fact that 
in many cases the spelling faculty is weak, perfec- 
tion could not be attained even if the number of 
words taught in an eight-year course should not 
exceed a thousand. And when we consider that the 
number of words in ordinary use is certainly not 
less than 15,000, including derivatives — and the de- 
rivatives are frequently difficult to spell — the ab- 
surdity of our demand becomes evident. Moreover, 
as some of our most scholarly people are deficient 
in spelling, and as, in this subject, some of the 
brightest pupils cannot keep pace with the dullest, 
our high-pitched sensibilities on the spelling question 
may be regarded as one of the mysteries of civiliza- 
tion. If these facts were more fully considered, we 
should undoubtedly feel more inclined to pardon an 
occasional mistake in spelling, and to refrain from 
abusing the schools for a weakness which, whatever 
might be done by our teachers, could not be over- 
come. 

My researches in spelling were begun in Feb- 
ruary, 1895, and extended over a period of sixteen 
months. During this time three different tests were 
made; the number of children examined reaching 
nearly 33,000. In the present chapter, I shall 
merely state the results of these tests, with certain 
[66] 



FUTILITY OF THE SPELLING GRIND 

conclusions that I have drawn from them ; deferring 
to the next the details concerning the methods of 
teaching, and the influences of certain modifying 
conditions, such as age, nationality, and environ- 
ment, which were studied as closely as possible in 
order that the comparisons might be fairly drawn. 
The results of the various tests, which are shown 
side by side in the accompanying tables, will be 
fully explained. 

My first test consisted of the following fifty 
words: furniture, chandelier, curtain, bureau, bed- 
stead, ceiling, cellar, entrance, building, tailor, doc- 
tor, physician, musician, beggar, plumber, super- 
intendent, engine, conductor, brakeman, baggage, 
machinery, Tuesday, Wednesday, Saturday, Feb- 
ruary, autumn, breakfast, chocolate, cabbage, dough, 
biscuit, celery, vegetable, scholar, geography, strait, 
Chicago, Mississippi, Missouri, Alleghanies, inde- 
pendent, confectionery, different, addition, division, 
arithmetic, decimal, lead, steel, pigeon. These 
Words, together with a set of questions concerning 
the methods employed by the teachers, as well as 
particulars in regard to the pupils, were sent to 
school superintendents in various sections of the 
United States. Of these superintendents, some 
twenty responded ; sending me, in total, the work of 
more than 16,000 children. Of the two tables pre- 
sented with this chapter, the first shows the general 
average obtained in individual cities by grades, every 
class-room examined being represented in the fig- 
ures ; while the second shows the results in individual 
schools — the most characteristic among those ex- 
[67] 



SCIENTIFIC MANACJKMKNT IN EDUCATION 

amincd Iiavln/r Ixcn sclcchi'd for j)ul)Iic;ili()n in ilils 
form. In llic (irsl. luhic llic results of I wo tests only 
are shown; wliile the second Inchides the results 
of the three. As It was thoii/^ht inadvisable to 
j)uhlish the names of the localities from which the 
j)a|)ers were received, the variouH cities have been 
represeidcd hy numbers, and the individual schools 
hy letters. 

On directing;' our attention to the results of the 
first test, we /ire startled by the enormous variations, 
when 1 he extremes are consi<lere(l — particularly in 
the fourth- year classes, wheic the averages range 
from ♦*{♦*{ to 1)5. »*{ per cent. Such brilliaid results as 
the latter nught lead one to believe that the spell- 
ing problem had already been solved, and that noth- 
ing was needed to put all our teachers on the right 
path beyond a careful study of i he methods em- 
ployed where the highest marks had been secured, 
and then carrying the nussage to those whose re- 
sults had been less favorable. 

As the replies to my (jueslions concerning the 
methods used by dillerent teachers were not sulli- 
ciontly clear to enable me to penetrate to the root 
of the matter, 1 decided to undertake a special tour 
for the purpose of obtaining more definite informa- 
tion from the teachers who had taken [)art in the 
test. During this tour, which extended over a 
period of two months, more than two hundred 
teachers were visited. Tx)ng before I had reached 
the end of my Journey my fondest hopes had fled; 
for 1 had learned from many sources that the un- 
[68]" 



FLTTILITY OF THE SPELLING GRIND 

Usually favorable results in certain class-rooms did 
not represent the natural conditions, but were due 
to the peculiar manner in which the examinations 
had been conducted. As the tests had not been 
made under my personal supervision, I could not, 
of course, vouch for the figures ; and, having found 
that under these circumstances experienced school 
people were unwilling to accept them, I was obliged 
to become resigned to the idea that most of my 
trouble had been for nothing. 

An unfortunate feature of the first test was the 
fact that in many of the words careful enunciation 
would give the clue to the spelling. In such words, 
for example, as tailor, doctor^ different^ independent ,_ 
the difficulty is entirely obviated by placing the ac- 
cent on the last syllable. Under these circum- 
stances, even the most conscientious teachers could 
not fail, unwittingly, to give their pupils some as- 
sistance, if their enunciation were habitually slow 
and distinct; while in those instances in which my 
test had been looked upon as an opportunity for an 
educational display — in which the imperfections of 
childhood were not to be shown — the teachers had 
been afforded the means of giving their pupils suf- 
ficient help, through exaggerated enunciation alone, 
to raise the class average very materially. I am con- 
fident, however, that, if any irregularities were prac- 
ticed, they were committed without the knowledge of 
the superintendents, who, as a class, are well known 
to discountenance such acts and to do all in their 
power to stamp them out. That, moreover, in the 
[69] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

vast majority of instances, the teachers were con- 
scientious is proved by the numerous papers sent to 
me in which the results were unfavorable. 

If I could safely have done so, I should have dis- 
carded the first test entirely rather than express 
these doubts. But to ignore this test might have 
submitted me to the charge of hiding results which 
did not substantiate my pedagogical theories; 
whereas, in truth, I had fully determined in ad- 
vance to base my theories on the facts, whatever 
their nature might be. As the results of the sec- 
ond and third tests are placed side by side with 
those of the first, no danger can arise by present- 
ing figures which, if shown by themselves, might be 
misleading. 

In view of my doubts concerning the first test, I 
decided to undertake another, and personally to 
supervise the examinations. Moreover, by giving a 
second test I believed that I might be able to dis- 
cover whether or not my fears had been well founded. 
In the latter the words were written in sentences; 
fifty test-words being employed in the fourth- and 
fifth-year classes, and seventy-five in the sixth, sev- 
enth, and eighth.^ In preparing this test, special 

^ While running he slipped. I listened to his queer speech, 
but I did not believe any of it. The weather is changeable. 
His loud whistling frightened me. He is always changing his 
mind. His chain was loose. She was baking cake. I have a 
piece of it. Did you receive my letter? I heard the laughter 
in the distance. Why did you choose that strange picture? 
* Because I thought I liked it. It is my purpose to learn. 
Did you lose your almanac? I gave it to my neighbor. *l 
was writing in my language book. Some children are not 
careful enough. Was it necessary to keep me waiting so 
long? Do not disappoint me so often. I have covered the 

[70] 



FUTILITY OF THE SPELLING GRIND 

care was exercised to omit words whose pronuncia- 
tion would tell the secret. 

In the second test more than 13,000 children were 
examined under my personal direction; and the pa- 
pers, although temporarily marked by the pupils, 
were finally corrected by my assistants. Although 
I could not be present in every room during the 
entire course of the examination, and although chil- 
dren cannot be prevented from copying, especially 
where the rooms are furnished with double seats and 
where the teachers have no control over their classes, 
I nevertheless believe that, for all practical pur- 
poses, the results of the second test demonstrate 
quite fairly what the children were able to do. In 
addition to those already mentioned, an indirect 
test in spelling was made in the form of composi- 
tions. The compositions represented the reproduc- 
tion of a story specially prepared for the purpose. 

mixture. He is getting better. *A feather is light. Do not 
deceive me. I am driving a new horse. *Is the surface of 
your desk rough or smooth? The children were hopping. 
This is certainly true. I was very grateful for my elegant 
present. If we have patience we shall succeed. He met with 
a severe accident. Sometimes children are not sensible. You 
had no business to answer him. You are not sweeping prop- 
erly. Your reading shows improvement. The ride was very 
fatiguing. I am very anxious to hear the news. I appreciate 
your kindness, I assure you. I cannot imagine a more peculiar 
character. I guarantee the book will meet with your ap- 
proval. Intelligent persons learn by experience. The peach is 
delicious. I realize the importance of the occasion. Every 
rule has exceptions. He is thoroughly conscientious; there- 
fore I do trust him. The elevator is ascending. Too much 
praise is not wholesome. 

The fourth- and fifth-year test ends with "This is certainly 
true." The higher test includes all the sentences except the 
four marked with an asterisk. The test-words are italicized. 

[71] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

This story, which was accompanied by a picture, 
was read to the pupils by the teacher. The composi- 
tions also, in a large number of schools, were pre- 
pared under my personal supervision, and in many 
others under the special supervision of persons 
whose conscientiousness could not be doubted. In 
those cases in which the papers were marked for 
spelling, I feel morally certain that the true results 
were shown. 

The marks for the spelling in compositions, which 
may be found in Table No. 2, are based on the 
actual number of words written by the child, and 
represent the number of correctly spelled words per 
hundred. When the same word was misspelled more 
than once in an individual composition, one error 
only was counted. The average ages were computed 
from the returns of the first test. The details con- 
cerning this question, as well as the time devoted 
to spelling, will be more fully considered in the next 
chapter. 

Of the three examinations, the first has been gen- 
erally regarded as the least efficient in demonstrat- 
ing the child's ability to spell, as such a test does 
not represent what he is able to do in ordinary writ- 
ing. That this argument is worthy of some con- 
sideration, particularly in the case of the more 
immature children, is indicated by the fact that 
some of the fourth-year averages which on the first 
test were in the thirties, on the second advanced 
to the seventies. The second test appeared to meet 
with general approval, although a few teachers be- 
lieved it too difficult for the sixth-year classes. As 
[72] 



FUTILITY OF THE SPELLING GRIND 

the test was purely comparative, however, this ob- 
jection could not affect its validity. As to the com- 
parative merits of the sentence- and the composition- 
tests, most teachers favor the latter, on the ground 
that the most rational test of the child's ability is 
one that shows his power to apply what he has 
learned. On the other hand, some have argued in 
favor of the sentence-test, believing that composi- 
tions do not include a sufficiently broad range of 
words to show the pupil's strength in all directions. 
If, however, an agreement might be secured to judge 
the spelling by the general written work, at least a 
temporary standard would be indicated by the re- 
sults of my composition-test, which lead to certain 
definite conclusions. 

In regard to the first test, I shall do no more 
here than direct attention to a few facts substan- 
tiating my statements concerning its validity. In 
the first place, it will be seen, by glancing over the 
averages in the last two columns of the second table, 
that the schools which towered above the others on 
the first test showed no marked superiority on the 
second. This is strikingly apparent in the case of 
School A, No. 9, which, on the first test, stood head 
and shoulders above the others, and, on the second, 
secured only eleventh place among the twenty-one 
on my list. The condition becomes doubly interest- 
ing when these marks are compared with those se- 
cured on both tests by School A, No. 7. 

In order to allay my fear of harboring unwar- 
ranted suspicions in the case of the remarkable class 
average of 95.3, secured in the fourth grade of 
[73] 



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1,5.3 


5 


65,673.7 


10 


B 


8 


20 


67 




12.8 


40 


74 


;68.8 

72 

sa 

69J 


— 


13.7 
14.7 


_35_ 
.30 


83 


78, 
84 




14.2 




81 


84.3 




15.5 




-73.473,8 


19 


A 


4 
4 


1 


11.8 


40 




73. 
78.2 








76 


$4' 




15.9 


30 


87,5 


85 
86.8 




15.8 




74.773.3 


19 


B 



B Indicates first hall, and small >. second halt, ol school year. 



FUTILITY OF THE SPELLING GRIND 

School A, No. 9, I compared the papers of the 
individual pupils who had taken part in the first 
test with those presented bj the same pupils on 
the second. Most of these pupils, in the meantime, 
had been promoted to the fifth grade. Of course, if 
their papers had again shown the same degree of 
perfection, it would have been but fair to conclude 
that the figures at first secured were reliable, and 
that we had simply discovered a remarkable group 
of children. The second examination proved, how- 
ever, that these children had not been born in Won- 
derland, but that they were of the very same stamp 
as other children had proved to be. In fact, the 
average made on the second test by those who had 
received 95.3 on the first was only 73, or exactly 
the same as that made by the pupils of School A, 
No. 7, who on the first test obtained not more 
than 41. 

In Schools E and H, No. 15, the figures are re- 
liable, as the words were dictated by myself. Again, 
in City 18, the examinations were made in my pres- 
ence, the words being dictated by the teachers. In 
no instance in which the tests were made under my 
supervision — the words being pronounced by either 
the teacher or myself — was the class average for the 
fourth year, in boys' or mixed schools, higher than 
59 per cent. I desire to say, in passing, that the 
results in the girls' schools were higher than those 
in the boys' and mixed schools. In the accompany- 
ing tables the girls' schools have been omitted; 
otherwise the comparison would have been mislead- 
ing. They will be considered separately. 

[75] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

Leaving the first test and directing our attention 
to the others, we are confronted by a number of 
interesting phenomena, almost equally manifest in 
both. The most striking of these are: First, that 
in the vast majority of instances the results are very 
close when the averages for entire buildings are 
compared. In fifteen of the twenty-one schools on 
my list, the averages on the second test, as the table 
shows, run from 73.3 to 77.9. Second, while the 
results in the lower grades of different schools show 
considerable variation, those in the eighth-year 
classes, which represent the end of the school course, 
are remarkably even. In twelve of the seventeen 
eighth-year grades, the averages are from 84 to 
88, the A and B classes being taken together. And 
in fifteen of a total of twenty sets of eighth-grade 
compositions examined for spelling, the variations 
were only three-tenths of 1 per cent, the results lying 
between 99.1 and 99.4, the A's and B's being taken 
as one. These facts are doubly remarkable when 
we consider that the twenty-one schools not only 
represent institutions in many sections of the coun- 
try, but that they are samples of schools conducted 
under all conceivable conditions. For example, No. 
7 is a Western city of moderate size, while No. 15 
is a large city in the East. Again, most of the 
children attending School A, No. 7, are of Ameri- 
can parentage, and their home surroundings are 
particularly favorable; while the children attending 
School B, No. 7, represent the foreign laboring ele- 
ment. Further, from a pedagogical standpoint, all 
varieties of schools are included; some of them be- 
[76] 



FUTILITY OF THE SPELLING GRIND 

longing to the most mechanical, while others are 
among the most progressive, in our country. 

If the best results had been secured in the me- 
chanical and the poorest in the progressive schools, 
the question would arise whether the small additional 
return would warrant the latter in placing addi- 
tional pressure on spelling at the expense of other 
subjects. But even this question does not arise; 
for it did not happen that the results in most cases 
were best in mechanical schools. Indeed, in both 
the mechanical and the progressive schools the re- 
sults were variable ; so that while, in some instances, 
the higher figures were secured by the former, in 
others they were obtained by the latter; and the 
same is true of the lower figures. For example. 
School B, No. 11, in which the best average (79.4) 
was obtained, belongs to a very progressive system; 
while School A, No. 12, which made only 73.9, be- 
longs to one of our most mechanical systems. And 
it is a peculiar incident that, in both these cities, 
the results in the only other school examined are 
exactly reversed, although the environment is about 
the same. 

Further, just as it is impossible by the results 
to distinguish the mechanical from the progressive 
schools, so it is impossible to distinguish the schools 
attended by the children of cultured parents from 
those representing the foreign laboring element; the 
results from this standpoint also varying equally. 
Consequently, so far as spelling is concerned, the 
influence of environment appears to be insignificant. 

The second point to which I have referred, 
[77] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

namely, the small variation in the eighth-year re- 
sults — regardless of how nmch time had been de- 
voted to spelling, or what methods had been em- 
ployed, or under what home influences the children 
had been reared — is also well worthy of considera- 
tion. And it is no less striking that the same level 
was reached in the end, regardless of wliat had been 
accomplished in the lower grades, a fact which be- 
comes obvious on comparing the results in the 
eighth-year classes with the average obtained by the 
entire school. In the composition test, where the 
results in fifteen of the twenty sets of eighth-year 
papers were within three-tenths of each other, this 
fact is still more clearly demonstrated. To make 
a further study of eighth-year results a few varia- 
tions in the tests were tried, but no modifications 
were found. For example, in a special test of 
twenty-five very simple words, I examined four 
eighth-year classes representing three different cities. 
The extremes did not vary more than two points; 
the results being respectively 92.0, 93.2, 93.6, and 
94.4. In one school, the compositions were written 
from the picture alone, so that the pupils were ab- 
solutely free in the selection of the story and the 
choice of words. The average was 99.3. 

Do not these results indicate that, in learning to 
6-^ spell, maturity is the leading factor, while method 
/plays only a subordinate part? And, if the supe- 
riority of the old-fashioned spelling grind cannot 
be demonstrated, is it not our duty to save the child 
from this grind? Moreover, as the results prove 
[78] 



FUTILITY OF THE SPELLING GRIND 

that, beyond a certain minimum, the compensation 
for time devoted to spelling is scarcely, if at all, 
appreciable, have we not here discovered an element 
of waste, which, if eliminated, would open the way 
to an equal enrichment of the course of study with- 
out detriment to the formal branches? 

It might still be argued that while pressure could 
be omitted in the case of pupils who were likely 
to complete the grammar-school course, it would 
nevertheless be needed for those who cannot attend 
school longer than four or five years. But, in view 
of my results, this argument is equally controverti- 
ble. For, in the first place, while the fourth and 
fifth grades, individually considered, show consid- 
erable variation, we find many instances in which 
a low fourth-year average is followed by a high fifth, 
and vice versa; so that when the two grades are 
averaged together, the results for the different 
schools are very, close. Again, while the differences 
in the fourth year are marked, the results do not 
speak in favor of mechanical primary schools. On 
the contrary, the poorest fourth-grade results — 
Schools A and B, No. 12 — were obtained by the 
pupils of primary departments as mechanical as 
any to be found; while, on the other hand, among 
those who did best were included some of our 
most delightful primary schools, such as School 
A, No. 7, and School B, No. 11. That no dogmatic 
statements on this point can be made on either side, 
however, is proved by the fact that a contrary state- 
ment would be equally true; for in some of the me- 
[79] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

chanical schools the fourth-grade averages were 
high, while in some of the progressive schools they 
were comparatively low. 

In the majority of instances, the results of the 
first test, also, were confined within narrow limits; 
for, in twelve out of eighteen cities — Nos. 1 and 9 
being excluded — tlie averages ranged from 70.6 to 
74.8, the number of correctly spelled words thus 
lying between 85 and 37. On the second test, the 
general averages in seven cities out of nine ranged 
from 73.5 to 70.8. The smallest variations, how- 
ever, were found in the results of the composition- 
test, where, in spite of the great variation in the 
character of the institutions, the extreme differ- 
ence in ten schools out of eleven was only five-tenths 
of 1 per cent— 98.2 to 98.7. 

Finally, as in most localities the general results 
Vere nearly equal — those secured under the same 
system of instruction varying as much as those 
obtained under different systems — it is clear that 
the remedy does not lie either in a change of method 
or in an increase of time. And this conclusion ac- 
cords with the fact that the dissatisfaction with 
spelling is as great in communities where this sub- 
ject constitutes a special feature as in those where 
spelling plays only a subordinate part in the schools. 

Whether or not the spelling in a particular lo- 
cality is actually below the average can only be 
learned by comparing the results of an examination 
conducted on the same basis in many localities. By 
examining children in any one city, on a set of arbi- 
trarily selected words, the question cannot be solved, 
[80] 



FUTILITY OF THE SPELLING GRIND 

because the results in other places, on the same list 
of words, would remain an unknown quantity. A 
common standard is offered, however, by a composi- 
tion-test such as I have undertaken. And when a 
test of this nature shows results similar to those 
presented in this article, interested citizens may 
rest assured that the spelling in their own schools 
is no worse than it is in those of most other localities. 



[81] 



VI 



In the preceding chapter I showed what our 
teachers had been able to accomplish in spelling, 
and, consequently, what standards in this subject 
we were justified in establishing. Thus far, the 
feasibility of establishing definite standards has 
been denied, on the ground that the influence of 
instruction was so profoundly modified by condi- 
tions inherent in the pupils that the results obtained 
in one class-room would not necessarily indicate 
what we had a right to expect in another. In the 
present chapter, however, I shall endeavor to prove, 
by an analysis of the factors involved, that, so far 
as spelling is concerned, the results are not de- 
pendent on conditions over which the teacher has no 
♦ control, but that, whether satisfactory or unsatis- 
/ factory, the causes may be found on the side of in- 
I struction. When my analysis is completed, I shall 
present an outline of what my investigations have 
led me to regard as the most rational plan of treat- 
ing the subject. 

In presenting my data, I shall first direct atten- 
tion individually to the factors brought into play 
by the pupils, viz., age, nationality, heredity, and 
^June, 1897. 
[82] 



FUTILITY OF THE SPELLING GRIND 

environment, and show how the mysteries are dis- 
sipated when the first ray of light is thrown upon 
them. The elements involved in instruction will then 
be considered in the same manner. 

If the ability to spell were influenced by age, the 
results, naturally, would be in favor of the older 
pupils. That the averages received by these were 
not higher than those obtained by the younger ones, 
however, is proved by the figures presented in Table 
No. 1. These figures show, on the contrary, that 
in the majority of instances the results were in 
favor of the younger pupils. This may be ac- 
counted for by the fact that the younger children 
in a class are frequently the brighter and the more 
mature, having overtaken the older pupils by rea- 
son of these characteristics. Moreover, that the 
best spellers are to be found, as a rule, among the 
brightest pupils, is shown by Table No. 2, which 
indicates the influence of intellect on spelling. As 
the task of computing the results by ages, intellect, 
and so on, from the papers of individual children 
was found to be very laborious, not all the papers 
received were utilized for this purpose. 

As in the preceding chapter, the cities are indi- 
cated in the tables by numbers, and the individual 
schools by letters. The first test, it will be recalled, 
consisted of a column of fifty words, and the second, 
of sentences ; fifty test-words being employed in the 
fourth and fifth, and seventy-five in the sixth, seventh, 
and eighth-year classes. The third test, spelling in 
compositions, will not be considered here. In Table 
No. 2, which shows the influence of intellect on spell- 
[83] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 



Tabm: No. 





FOURTD YEAR. 


FUrniTKAB. 


SIXTH yiCAR. 


BKVEirrn tear. 


Eionrn tkah. 


>> 

.t: 


1 




J 


8, 
< 


of 


i 






•as 

0<] 


1 


11 




1 


i 


II 




f 1 


&-11 


i;n 


73.5 


0-13 


107 


78. 


»-13 


72 


85.0 


9-14 


88 


88.5 


13-14 


24 


04.4 


g 




i3-ir> 


78 


(57.'] 


1.3-17 


Oi) 


75.0114-17 


50 


84.0 


1.5-17 


:{8 


8t>.(i 


1.5-18 


00 


03.5 


"JT 


«-12 


1((7 


51.5 


"lO-lT 


l.S« 


flT 


Tl-18 


r;{7 


77. 


11-1.1 


'82 


mA) 


12-14 


70 


00.9 


t 




L'J-HJ 


10 


55 . 1 


13-15 


57 


59.0 


14-17 


or? 


74.1 


14-1 (! 


105 


h:m 


15-10 


111 


HO. 3 


u 


«-ll 


111 


5071 


10-13 


(il 


70. 1 


io-i;j 


112 


75.1 


U-14 


"77 


H;r2 


i;5-15 


•61 


00.5 


"^ 




12-15 


104 


■W.l 


l;M« 


01 


m.: 


14-17 


74 


78. ;^| 15-18 


ca 


84. 


10-18 


13 


91.7 



9-11 

13£15 
8-10 

nj-1^3 
9-11" 

13-15 



00.51 
50.1 

0870 
50^ 
70. L 
01,7 



10-13 

13-15 
10-12 

i:m5 

10-12 

i;m5 



81. 

7H.>^ 
MM 
78^0 
7575 
70 . 2 



t3-18 
14-10 
I'2-13 
14-10 

ri-13" 

14-10 



70.0 

08.3 

?',r2 

08.. 3 
73T1 
74.7 



13-14 
15-17 
1'2-14 
lj5-17^ 
13-14 
1.5-17 



70 

77. H 
70 . ( 
77_^b 
80.2 
80.5 



13-14 

ir)-n 

1'2-14 
15-17 



86.9 
84^ 

87.3 
84.8 













Tadlb No, 2. 










i-6 


1 





i 


0) 

< 


4 


1 

■4 


32 

•SI 


t 

> 

N <1 




1 


8 


,4 
6 
6 


10 


113 


78.7 


169 


70.5 


1.53 


58.8 


54 


51.1 


8 


i« 

33 


117 
104 


80. 
■ 88.7 


239 
-26T 


77.7 
84.3 


166 


71.1 


59 


61.6 


3 


'183 


78. 


69 


73 7 


3 


7 


19 


116 


03.4 


216 


88.3 


155 


77.5 


59 


79.3 


_2_ 


_8_ 


8 


66 


' 94. 


09 


89.3 


97 


87.8 


30 


81.5 









Table No. 8 














Oradk. 


1 



■'S 

6 


•s 

i 


i 


i 




< 


\ §1 

1 


•^ 


65^ 


f 


, 


Fourth 

Fifth 

Sixth 


21 
21 
21 
21 


119 
1'26- 

100 


3700 
3500" 

3'I07 


53 , 5 

"(UT.s 
"75T0 


1051 

'n2(i 

1032 


53. 

m . 8 
74T0 


'815 
814 
700 


53. 


670 
6T9 

584 
304 


53.3 


^^' 


65.1 


64.3 


74.1 

SO , <» 


74.3 


Seventh 

I Eighth 


81. 


Oil 


79. 




3,1 


71 


2088 


84.3 


(Ids 


s.^.-f 


:Mr-) 


^5 . 


204 


83. 



td 


Fourth ......... 

Fiftli ,..1 

Sixth 


4 


.27 


m 


64.7 


155 


65.0 


159 


64.9 


129 


63.5 


S,: 


4 ' 


29 


830 


76. 


153 


77.4 


157 


70.7 


120 


74.5 


P,S 


1 4 


23 


778 


69.7 


W^ 


69.6 


105 


70.3 


119 


70.4 


Seventh 

Eighth 


4 


18 


566 


78.8 


81 


83.5 


53 


81.5 


55 


76.8 


M 


4 


19 


528 


83.1 


■ 73 


83.2 


frl 


83.2 


76 


65. 



[84] 



FUTILITY OF THE SPELLING GRIND 

ing, "Intellect 1" indicates the brightest, and "In- 
tellect 4," the dullest pupils. The difference in 
favor of the brightest pupils, when compared with 
the dullest, is very striking. The lesson to be 
learned from Table 2 is that an unusually high or 
low class-average may now and then be accounted 
for by an exceptionally bright or dull set of pupils. 
Occasionally, therefore, the teacher may be allowed 
to plead " dull pupils " as an excuse for poor re- 
sults. While this might offer a loophole for an in- 
competent teacher, the danger of being misled by 
such a plea is not great, because, in most instances, 
the teacher's statement can be verified by reference 
to the principal. Teachers habitually cursed with 
dull pupils cannot be placed too soon on the retired 
list. If the results throughout a building should be 
unsatisfactory, to plead "dull pupils" would, of 
course, be ridiculous. 

Next, a comparison of the results obtained by 
children representing the foreign element with those 
secured by the American element (Table No. 3) 
shows that the influence of nationality on spelling is 
nil. Indeed, the percentages, if not identical, are 
slightly in favor of the foreign element. These fig- 
ures, computed from the papers of pupils attending 
schools of all varieties, are substantiated by the fact 
already mentioned ; viz., that the results in schools 
attended almost entirely by children of foreigners 
were fully as good as those in schools where most 
of the pupils were from American homes. Moreover, 
in spelling, nationality furnishes a very broad clue 
to heredity. And as the excellent spelling so fre- 

[85] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

quently found among the children of foreigners can- 
not be regarded as the perpetuation of a family 
trait, the influence of heredity on spelling must also 
be put down as immaterial. 

In Table No. 3, the influence of environment is 
also shown; the results obtained by children of un- 
skilled laborers, whose home surroundings are pre- 
sumably unfavorable, being compared with results 
obtained by all classes of children examined. And 
here again, strange as it may seem, the percentages 
were practically equal; thus showing that home en- 
vironment exerts, apparently, as little influence on 
spelling as the other factors that I have discussed. 

As the facts I have presented would indicate that 
the results of instruction in spelling were not ma- 
terially modified by conditions over which the 
teacher had no control, it is evident that the causes 
of success and failure must be sought among the 
elements brought into play by the teacher. The 
most important of these are: (1) the amount of 
time devoted to spelling; (2) the methods of teach- 
ing the subject; (3) the selection of words; and (4) 
the personal equation of the teacher. These points 
will now be individually considered. 
-^ Concerning the amount of time devoted to spell- 
ing, I need only repeat what was mentioned in the 
preceding chapter, namely, that an increase of time 
beyond a certain maximum is not rewarded by bet- 
ter results, or, in other words, that all the time be- 
yond this maximum is simply thrown away. This, 
in my opinion, was conclusively proved by the table 
presented in that chapter, which showed that the 
[86] 



FUTILITY OF THE SPELLING GRIND 

results obtained by forty or fifty minutes' daily in- 
struction were not better than those obtained where 
not more than ten or fifteen minutes had been de- 
voted to the subject. As the time element is the 
central point around which the possibility of en- 
riching the course revolves, my researches would 
have been a.mply repaid if they had led to nothing 
beyond this discovery. 

Those who regard as incredible my statement 
concerning the time element in spelling may possibly 
find some food for reflection in Chapter III. Again, 
conviction may be carried by the facts presented in 
a letter from Dr. Eucken, Professor of Philosophy 
in the University of Jena. Professor Eucken writes 
as follows: 

Jena, April 19, 1897. 
My Dear Doctor: 

I have read your articles in The Forum with great inter- 
est; and I am pleased that you are laboring with so much 
energy toward the exclusion of useless matters from the 
course, so that attention may be centred on the essentials. 
The results presented in your last article, "The Futility of the 
Spelling Grind," are also very interesting, and cannot fail 
to lead to serious reflection. 

That instruction, particularly in the lower grades, is in need 
of simplification, we have had occasion to experience with our 
own children. It appeared to us that, for the little the chil- 
dren actually acquired in the public schools, they were 
obliged to spend far too much time in the schoolroom. We 
therefore organized a small private class (3 to 5 children) 
for the purpose of covering the work of the lower grades. 
The children received from 5 to 8 hours' instruction per week. 
The results were perfectly satisfactory. The requirements were 
met excellently, so that the children were enabled immediately 
to enter the next higher grade. 

No doubt the number of pupils played an important part 

[87] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

in the achievement; but the success must certainly be largely 
attributed to the better methods employed in our little pri- 
vate school. 

I therefore wish you all possible success in your endeavors. 
Obviously, in America, they are duly recognized and appre- 
ciated. 

Very respectfully yours. 
Dr. J. M. Rice. R. Euckest. 

Next, concerning the influence of methods, a very 
comprehensive study was made, through personal 
interviews with some two hundred teachers whose 
pupils had taken part in my tests. These teachers 
were questioned, to the minutest details, in regard 
to the course they had pursued. As the table show- 
ing a summary of these interviews side by side with 
the results was found too complicated for publica- 
tion, I shall be able to present only the deductions 
to be drawn therefrom. 

(In brief, these deductions may be summarized in 
the statement that there is no direct relation be- 
tween methods and results. In other words, the 
results varied as much under the same as they did 
under different methods of instruction. 

For example, among the points that have given 
rise to endless discussion is that concerning the 
value of oral spelling; some believing it to be vital, 
while others claim that it is actually detrimental. 
My tests showed that, while in some of the schools 
where a special feature had been made of oral spell- 
ing the results were favorable, in others they were 
unfavorable. And the same conditions were shown 
where oral spelling had been abandoned. Secondly, 
much discussion has arisen as to whether, in written 
[88] 



FUTILITY OF THE SPELLING GRIND 

spelling, the words of the lesson should be placed 
in columns or in sentences. But the claim of su- 
periority in favor of sentence over column spelling 
was by no means corroborated, the results of the 
sentence method varying just as much as those of 
the column method. 

In addition to questions on the fundamental ele- 
ments, an inquiry was made concerning the details 
relating to these methods ; such as the mode of 
dividing words into syllables, both in oral and writ- 
ten spelling, the different ways in which misspelled 
words were made up by the pupils, the frequency 
of reviews, and so on. But no direct relation between 
devices and results could be traced. A very careful 
study was made as to whether there is any founda- 
tion for the theory that when children learn to read 
by the phonic method they fall into the habit of 
spelling phonetically, and therefore become poor 
spellers. The analysis showed that some of the best 
results had been obtained where the phonic method 
had been employed ; that, in fact, the phonic method 
had long formed a feature in the cities where the 
highest averages were made. Another theory, that 
the best spelling is produced in schools where the 
most general reading is done, also proved unfounded. 
Nor did the schools where the most time was de- 
voted to written language make the best showing. 

A device known as the sight or flash method has 
also found its way into some of our schools. This 
method, in brief, is as follows : A word is written 
on the board by the teacher, who permits the pupils 
to glance at it for a moment. The word is then 

[89] 



/ 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

erased, and the pupils are called upon to reproduce 
it on the board from memory. In this way, one word 
after another is written until the lesson is com- 
pleted. Some who have used this method look upon 
it as a panacea: others have no confidence in it 
whatever. Judging by my results, the claims in its 
favor are not warranted. On the contrary, in some 
of the schools where it had been faithfully tried, 
the results were particularly discouraging. 

The facts here presented will, in my opinion, 
admit of one conclusion only; viz., that the results 

j are not determined by the methods employed, but 
j>y the ability of those who use them. In other 

1/ words, the first place must be given to the personal 
equation of the teacher, while methods and devices 
play only a subordinate part. 

It seems to me, therefore, that the evils now 
ascribed to uncontrollable circumstances should be 
attributed in large part to a lack on the part of 
the teacher of those qualifications which are essen- 
tial to success. Consequently, when reasonable de- 
mands are not met within a reasonable time limit, 
we are justified in inferring that the fault lies with 
the teacher and not with the pupils. An instructive 
experience I once encountered will serve to illustrate 
this point. On leaving a class-room in which I had 
heard a few recitations, I complimented the teacher 
on the intelligence of her pupils. She replied : "You 
must not give me credit for that. These children 
are Russians; and one can do anything with Rus- 
sians.'' It so happened that on the next day, I 
visited a class-room, in which the children were ex- 
[90] 



FUTILITY OF THE SPELLING GRIND 

ceptionally dull. On this occasion the teacher re- 
marked : "You must not blame me for their stupidity. 
My pupils are Russians; and one cannot do anything 
with Russians J"* 

Finally, I shall call attention to an important 
factor, on the side of instruction, whose influence, 
though manifest, is not affected by the spirit of the 
teacher. I refer to the selection of words for the 
spelling course. It is in this element only that I can 
find an explanation of the most puzzling feature 
shown in the tables accompanying the preceding arti- 
cle, namely, that classes which received exceptionally 
low averages on the column test did just as well as 
others on the sentence and composition tests. That 
these poor results cannot be attributed to lack of 
experience in writing words in columns is proved 
by the fact that, in most of the schools where they 
were secured, column spelling had formed a regular 
feature in instruction. Nor can they be accounted 
for by the fact, previously mentioned, that the ex- 
ceptionally high percentages were not trustworthy; 
for the results to which I now refer were far below 
those obtained in some instances where the words 
were dictated by myself. I believe, therefore, that 
the lack of success on this particular test was due 
to the fact that it contained certain classes of words 
on which these pupils had not been drilled ; although, 
with few exceptions, the words employed were very 
common ones. 

A careful analysis showed that in most instances 
where the low averages on the column test were 
obtained, the spelling-book had been abandoned; 
[91] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

although where it had been set aside the results were 
not always low. In many such cases, the words are 
selected entirely from the other school-books — 
reader, geography, history, arithmetic, science, and 
so on — when opportunity for using them in school 
work arises. Words not directly needed are liable 
to be neglected, however common they may be. 
Thus, in selecting words for the needs of the school- 
room, rather than of life, the danger arises of giv- 
ing precedence to technical and unusual words, 
while the common ones play a subordinate part only. 
It is claimed in favor of this method of selection 
that it is the more natural one. In my opinion, 
however, no method of teaching can be more un- 
natural ; for, when the words are thus selected, the 
pedagogical principle — from the easy to the diffi- 
cult — is disregarded, and systematic progress aban- 
doned. Moreover, from a practical standpoint, the 
method is a most wasteful one, because much of the 
time which should be devoted to practical spelling is 
spent in studying words seldom used outside the 
schoolroom. When the need for such words arises 
in life, resort may be had to the dictionary. If the 
dictionary must be more or less frequently employed, 
in spite of instruction in spelling, it is safer to run 
our chances with the unusual words than with those 
in constant use. The danger of leading children 
into bad habits if we permit them to misspell words 
in their written work could be obviated without 
completely perverting instruction in spelling. It 
would be necessary simply to tell the pupils how 
to spell the uncommon and technical words, or to 
[92] 



FUTILITY OF THE SPELLING GRIND 

place them on the board, when occasion required. 
Thus, children might be led incidentally to learn 
how to spell the rarer words, while the spelling pe- 
riod proper might be spent on practical work. 

The absurdities incident to the so-called "natural 
method" were shown very clearly during one of my 
visits to a fifth-year class, when the pupils, who 
had studied the pine, were about to write a com- 
position on the subject. In preparation, the spell- 
ing-lesson of the day consisted of the following 
words : Exogen^ erect, cylindrical, coniferal, irregu- 
lar, indestructible, pins, resinous, and whorls. 
First, as for systematic progress in spelling — from 
the easy to the difficult — a more absurd combina- 
tion could be scarcely devised. And, secondly, from 
the practical point of view, such words as exogen, 
coniferal, whorls, are entirely out of place — at least 
until perfection. in common words has been reached. 
And that drill in common words was still sorely 
needed in this instance was shown by the results 
obtained by the pupils on some of the simple words 
in my sentence test ; the forty- four papers submitted 
showing errors as follows: running 9, slipped 27, 
believe 17, changeable 30, baking 7, piece 11, care- 
ful 12, waiting 9, getting 9, driving 11, and hopping 
17. In the grade representing the latter half of the 
fourth school-year, containing pupils soon to be pro- 
moted into the class just spoken of, the results in 
forty papers on words in my column test showed 
the following errors: bureau and chocolate 39, 
36, Wednesday 34, dough 31, autumn 27, cabbage 
pigeon 38, biscuit, celery, vegetable 37, February 
[93] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

24, h^edstead, beggar, steel 23, tailor 22. Are we 
justified in such cases as these in spending our time 
on unusual words? 

Having presented my data, it will now be in place 
to say a few words concerning the course in spell- 
ing which I have been led to regard as the most 
rational and fruitful. First, as to oral and written, 
column and sentence, spelling, I shall say only this, 
that the wise teacher will acquaint herself with as 
many methods and devices as possible, and change 
from one to the other, in order to relieve the tedium 
and to meet the needs of individual children. Be- 
fore all, she will beware of running off at a tangent 
with any particular method, because none yet dis- 
covered has proved a panacea. 
/ Secondly, under no circumstances should more 
'{ than fifteen minutes daily be devoted to the subject. 
/ Whatever benefit the pupils receive from their in- 
^ struction in spelling will be obtained within this 
period. 

Thirdly, I should recommend that the words be 
carefully graded, not only in regard to orthographi- 
cal difficulties, but in accordance with the vocabulary 
of the child as well. In this way, the course in 
spelling might become as systematic as in other 
subjects. 

Fourthly, precedence should be given to common 
words, while technical and unusual words should 
be taught incidentally. By excluding words of the 
latter classes, the course would be materially 
abridged, and the chances of producing good prac- 
tical spellers proportionately increased. 
[94] 



FUTILITY OF THE SPELLING GRIND 

Fifthly, the course should be further abridged by 
excluding words that contain no catch, i.e., words 
which naturally spell themselves. My researches on 
this point would indicate that more than half the 
common words belong to this category and conse- 
quently need not be studied. The ideal ground to 
be covered in spelling would be represented, there- 
fore, by a carefully graded list of the common words 
most liable to be misspelled. The number of words 
in this list, according to my estimate, would be be- 
tween six and seven thousand. 

When the words have been selected, the next step 
will lie in a systematic treatment of the difficulties. 
And here again the course is open to simplification, 
by separating the words that may be learned col- 
lectively from those which must be mastered in- 
dividually. 

The words that can be acquired collectively are 
those to which rules of spelling apply. While, in 
some instances, the exceptions are so numerous as 
to rob the rules of their value, a few of them, never- 
theless, are very reliable, at least for all practical 
purposes. And, as these few rules govern thou- 
sands of words, it would be much less burdensome to 
master them than to memorize such words individu- 
ally. Among these rules, two are particularly com- 
prehensive, and should be taught, year after year, 
until applied automatically. They are: first, the 
rule referring to the doubling of the consonant, as 
in run-running; and, secondly, the rule concerning 
the dropping of the final e, as in bake-baking. That 
so many children, even in the highest grammar 

[95] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

grade, should spell lose with two o's does not neces- 
sarily throw discredit on the teacher; but that a 
child who has attended school four years or more 
should write "While runing he sliped," or "She was 
bakeing cake," is as unpardonable as if he were 
unable to add 2 and 2. And yet out of 252 pupils 
in the fourth school-year, whose papers were ex- 
amined with reference to this point, running was 
misspelled by 94, slipped by 126, and baking by 69. 
That little advantage is now taken of rules is 
indicated by the fact that, broadly speaking, as 
many errors were made on words governed by rules 
as on those to which they did not apply. The com- 
parison is shown in the following table, which is 
based on the sentence test : 

Table No. 4 



No. of 
Schools. 


(Jrade. 


No. of 
Pupils. 


General 
Average. 


Results on 

words under 

the rule. 


Results on 
words not 
under rule. 


3 


4 


252 


66.4 


60.9 


69.0 


3 


5 


232 


76.4 


72.6 


78.2 


3 


6 


311 


71.0 


73.2 


70.2 


3 


7 


191 


80.9 


81.9 


80.6 


2 


8 


62 


86.3 


91.4 


85.4 



In the fourth and fifth year classes, it will be seen 
that the results were in favor of words not under 
the rule. In the sixth year classes, however, the 
scale began to turn. 

The words that must be studied individually are 
those in which no clue is given, either by sounds or 
[96} 



FUTILITY OF THE SPELLING GRIND 

rules. The best to be done with such words, until 
our spelling is reformed, is to bring them to the 
notice of the child, and trust to chance for the 
results. The simple reform of dropping the silent 
letter in the last syllable of such words as beggar, 
driver, doctor, mantel, bundle, metal, would enable 
us to strike no less than 15 per cent of the words 
from the described list. Again, in the long vowel 
sounds the difficulties are endless ; the same sound 
being represented in so many different ways that it 
is a marvel to be able to master them at all. To illus- 
trate: blue, to, too, two, who, shoe, you, ewe; lieu, 
view, new {knew); no {know), sew, beau, toe, owe, 
oh, dough, goat. Again, the choice between ee and 
ea, as in feed, read, is extremely puzzling. What a 
boon to our children it would be to rid spelling of 
such peculiarities as these ! 

The difficulties in English spelling were most 
vividly demonstrated by the numerous ways in which 
the younger children endeavored to get at some of 
the words. In a fourth year class of forty pupils, 
for example, the word physician was misspelled in 
forty different ways, chandelier in 32, machinery in 
27, bureau and chocolate in 23, vegetable in 19, 
furniture in 18, biscuit in 17, Wednesday in 15, 
celery and pigeon in 14, baggage in 13, February 
and cabbage in 11, dough in 9. Some of the com- 
binations were as follows: 

For physician: fasition, fesition, fisition, fusition, 
fazition, fisision, facision, fizeshon, fazishon, fusa- 
shon, physichan, phyzision, physicion, phacicion, 
physision, phisishon, phasichian, phisishon, vasition, 

[97] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

vecition, fasision, fosishen, fursishon, fushistion, fe- 
shishon, phisican, fusison, fesision, phsislien^ fazui- 
sheriy phosion, fusion, fusion, fazshen, fisJion, pha- 
siariy phacion, fegtion, pliyasishen, phsam; for 
chocolate: chocolate^ choclate, choclet, chocklet, 
chocklate, cliocholit, chocJdod, choJcolat, chokelate, 
chokelaty chalkolet, chaclote, chaclate, chalket, 
cholet, cliolate, clioalate, chalcolate, choctlet, choak- 
late, clioclelot, cJiouilet, cacklet; for bureau: huro, 
huroWy huroe, huerow, hurreau, burro, burou, buero, 
beauro, beaurow, beaurew, beuro, beuroe, berro, 
berow, berrow, biro, beiro, brewro, bewer, beroueo, 
broe, b^errobe; for vegetable: vegitahle, vegitabels, 
vegatable, vegtahle, vegtible, Vegtibale, vegeatabel, 
vegitble, vegitbul, vegatobol, vegitale, vetable, vege- 
able, vegubale, veguahle, vegatable, vegitalb, vegtful, 
vestuble; for furniture: furnature, furnishture, fune- 
ture, funiture, furnutor, furnisher, furnachure, 
furnichure, fruniture, furiture, furnerchur, feri- 
chure, furicher, furichur, furuner, ferichrue, furer- 
curc. 

Finally, I would suggest a separate list of those 
puzzling small words, which, though constantly used 
in writing, are yet so frequently misspelled. Among 
these may be mentioned to, too, there, their, hear, 
here, any, many, much, such, which, those, whose, 
and does. In all such a list need not include more 
than 150 or 200 words. As these words cannot be 
too often brought to the notice of the child, the 
drill should be begun as early as possible and con- 
tinued throughout the entire course. Even in the 
highest grammar grade, a considerable number of 
[98] 



FUTILITY OF THE SPELLING GRIND 

pupils will write dose for does, who^s for whose, there 
for their, to for too, etc. The sentence, "Too much 
food is harmful," was given to very many children 
East and West; and in the sixth year classes from 
40 to 75 per cent of the pupils began the sentence 
with "To." 

Although a liberal admixture of methods and a 
judicious selection of words would be of material 
assistance, nothing can take the place of that per- 
sonal power which distinguishes the successful from 
the unsuccessful teacher. Consequently, our efforts 
should be primarily directed toward supplying our 
schools with competent teachers. As the number 
required precludes the possibility of limiting the 
selection to those who are born for the profession, 
our only course lies in developing the requisite 
powers, as well as we can, where they are naturally 
weak. To this end, I believe that no means can be 
more effective than to prescribe a definite task, to 
be completed in a given time, and to make the tenure 
of office depend on the ability to meet the demand. 
If my proposition should consider the results alone, 
then of course it would be fraught with the danger 
of leading us back to the era of endless mechanical 
drill ; but so long as the time limit is a sine qua non, 
this danger is entirely averted. 



[99] 



VII 

A TEST IN ARITHMETIC ^ 

In the present and the following two chapters, I 
shall present the facts secured by a test in arith- 
metic, and I shall concentrate attention chiefly upon 
the two fundamental questions by which teachers 
are confronted whenever a subject is incorporated 
in the school programme : 

(1) What results shall be accomplished? and (2) 
How much time shall be devoted to the branch? 

Intimately associated with these questions is a 
third, namely: Why do some schools succeed in se- 
curing satisfactory results with a reasonable appro- 
priation of time, while others cannot get reasonable 
results in spite of an inordinate provision of time? 
This question introduces a problem which is much 
more involved than the others. Although no previ- 
ous attempts have been made to discover which 
schools have really met with success in the teaching 
of a subject, under a given time allotment, and 
which have not, the facts are not difficult to secure. 
They must, however, be determined before any sus- 
tained forward movement in pedagogy becomes pos- 
sible; otherwise our basis of pedagogical reasoning 
is liable to be false. Every practical educator who 
^ October-December, 1902. 
[100] 



A TEST IN ARITHMETIC 

endeavors to influence other members of the pro- 
fession must necessarily base his pedagogical utter- 
ances on the assumption that the teaching in his 
own schools has been successful. In the absence of 
facts his word must be taken on faith, while the 
facts may prove that our adviser is wrong and that 
success has been met where it has been least expected. 
As I have said, to get at the facts in regard to 
the results of instruction is a comparatively simple 
matter. Their explanation, however, is by no means 
easy. The educator of to-day finds no difficulty in 
explaining results, because he starts out with psy- 
chological theories and determines the results of his 
methods by a process of reasoning. He states, for 
example, that if such and such methods are used, 
such and such results must follow; but the results 
which he explains by the methods are the products 
of his own imagination. As long as he feels assured 
that certain results must follow his methods, why 
should he waste time in seeing that they do ? When, 
however, we come into possession of real facts, we 
find that they differ widely from imaginary ones, 
and that theories which are a perfect fit to imag- 
inary facts may not in any way fit the actual ones. 
In my researches I look for the genuine facts ; and 
if the facts I find look queer and fail to bear out 
some of our long-cherished theories, do not let us 
blame the facts, but let us reconstruct our theories. 

The test in arithmetic on which this article will 
be based was taken in the early part of the present 
year (1902). I made a similar test some six years 
[101] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

ago, soon after I had completed the one in spellmg; 
but my editorial duties at the time prevented me 
from following up the investigations in a satisfac- 
tory manner, and I therefore did not publish the 
results. In my recent test the examinations were 
made — in each instance during my presence — in 
eighteen school buildings, representing seven cities. 
In all, about 6,000 children were examined. While 
the number of pupils tested was, therefore, not 
nearly so large as in the case of my examinations in 
spelling, the investigation, nevertheless, sufficed to 
show the general conditions equally well from several 
points of view. 

The test itself consisted of eight examples. In 
the first two schools ten were given, but some curtail- 
ment seemed advisable. As in my earlier tests, so in 
the recent one, the examinations were given to the 
pupils of the fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth 
school years, representing, generally speaking, the 
grammar grades. They were not given below the 
fourth year, because the principal point, after all, 
is to see what the children are able to do on leaving 
school, and very few leave before the end of the 
fourth year. 

In preparing my questions I endeavored to ar- 
range them in a way that would suit the individual 
grades of all schools, regardless of the methods or 
systems employed. From this standpoint I was suc- 
cessful, excepting that in a very few instances two of 
the examples were beyond the scope of the pupils in 
the first half of the fourth year, because they had 
not yet learned to multiply or divide with figures 
[ 102 ] 



A TEST IN ARITHMETIC 

above twelve, and in the first half of the seventh 
year, where the classes had not yet had much prac- 
tice in percentage. These points were carefully 
noted; but when the papers were marked it was 
found that the effect upon the entire school average 
would not in any case exceed two per cent. I wish 
to add, furthermore, that for the purpose of study- 
ing the growth of mental power from year to year, 
some of the problems were carried through several 
grades. Thus, of the eight questions for the fourth 
grade, five were repeated in the fifth, and three in 
the sixth, etc. Moreover, this repetition will enable 
us to see not only, for instance, how the results in 
the fifth and sixth grades, in regard to certain prob- 
lems, compare with those of the fourth in the same 
school, but also how the results in the fourth grade 
of some schools compare in these examples with those 
of the fifth and sixth grades of others, etc. The 
problems for all the grades may be seen on pages 
122, 123, 124, and 125. 

A discussion of the results will now be in order. 
In my investigation of the spelling problem, the 
striking feature, in regard to the results, was the 
fact that the differences were small, and particularly 
so in the upper grades. In arithmetic, on the other 
hand, the differences were large all along the line, 
and much greater in the seventh and eighth year 
classes than in the earlier ones. In the seventh year, 
the class averages ranged from 8.9 per cent to 81.1, 
and in the eighth year, from 11.3 to 91.7. The 
averages for schools taken as a whole varied between 
25 and 80 per cent ; and the extremes did not repre- 
[108] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

sent isolated cases, but were merely the ends of a 
graduated scale. In some schools low marks in two 
or three grades were offset by high marks in the 
others, producing a fair percentage. In others, fair 
results, grade for grade, produced a fair school aver- 
age. In another class of cases the marks were good 
throughout, and in still another low throughout. 

Table I gives two averages for each grade as well 
as for each school as a whole. Thus, the school at 
the top shows averages of 80.3 and 83.5, and the 
one at the bottom, 25.2 and 31.8. The first repre- 
sents the percentage of answers which were abso- 
lutely correct ; the second shows what per cent of 
the problems were correct in principle, i.e., the aver- 
age that would have been received if no mechanical 
errors had been made. The difference represents the 
percentage of mechanical errors, which, I believe, in 
most instances, makes a surprisingly small appear- 
ance.^ For the sake of uniformity, I shall use the 
figures of the first column as the basis of comparison, 
although, in view of the very small differences, the 

^ The method of computing the mechanical errors requires 
an explanation. In examining the papers, only those exam- 
ples that had been correctly worked in p»rinciple w^ere consid- 
ered; the others were marked wrong, and no further account 
was taken of them. Consequently, the percentage of mechan- 
ical errors is represented by the errors of that nature in the 
problems that had received credit for the principle. Thus, 
the figures for the school at the top show, in round numbers, 
that out of every 83 examples correct in principle, 3 con- 
tained mechanical errors. The latter are therefore represented 
by the fraction %3, which is equivalent to 3.6 per cent. In 
the case of the school at the bottom, the fraction is %i, equiva- 
lent to 19.3 per cent. In the table the percentages are slightly 
diflferent, because the decimals also were considered. 

[ 104 ] 



A TEST IN ARITHMETIC 

same remarks would have applied to the other col- 
umn as well. 

If, for the purpose of analysis, the schools be 
divided into three classes — good, fair, and poor — 
the question of distribution becomes interesting, be- 
cause, in nearly all cases, the different schools of an 
individual city will be found to belong to one and the 
same class. Thus, every one of the four schools of 
City I made a very good average ; the three schools 
of City VI and the three of City VII show, without 
exception, very poor results ; and of the four build- 
ings in City IV, three did fairly and one did poorly. 
The only marked exception is to be found in City 
III, one of whose schools heads the table, while the 
other did only fairly well. 

As for City I, by comparing the percentages for 
each grade with the general average for that grade, 
i.e.y the averages for all schools examined taken 
collectively, it will be seen that in one only of the 
nineteen classes represented did the grade average 
fall below the general average, the results in all other 
instances being above. On the other hand, of the 
fifteen classes of City VI, one only crossed the gen- 
eral average for the grade, while the results in the 
others were far below; and of the fifteen classes of 
City VII, one only touched the general average, 
several of the others being very far below. City IV 
saved itself from a low classification through favor- 
able results, for the most part, in the fourth and fifth 
years. 

The single school in City II secured high marks 
in the fourth, fifth, and sixth years, but did poorly 
[105] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

in the seventh and eighth ; while the single school 
in City V just met the general average in the fifth 
and eighth years, but fell far below it in the others. 

After this review of the figures, it will be appro- 
priate to ask why the results in the schools of City 
I were so much more favorable than those in the 
schools of Cities VI and VII. The layman would 
be disposed to reply at once that arithmetic had been 
better taught in the schools of the former city than 
in those of the latter. On the other hand, many 
thoughtful educators would not accept this offhand 
statement, but would claim that so many factors 
come into play in the education of the child that it 
is impossible to tell to what extent results are due 
to the teaching and in how far they are modified by 
other causes. 

It is evident, therefore, that in seeking an expla- 
nation for the differences in the results, two factors 
must be taken into consideration: first, the influence 
of the teaching ; and, secondly, the resistance against 
that influence due to circumstances over which the 
teacher has no direct control. It may be argued 
that if the resistance be great, superior teaching may 
be followed by poor results, and, on the other hand, 
that if the resistance be small, inferior teaching may 
be rewarded by excellent results. But it must also 
be admitted that if the resistance be equal, good re- 
sults in one case and poor results in another must 
be credited to a difference in the quality of the 
teaching. 

That the amount of resistance offered by non- 
pedagogical influences is to-day unknown does not 
[ 106 ] 



A TEST IN ARITHMETIC 

bj any means indicate that it must forever remain 
unknown. On the contrary, the problem of modify- 
ing conditions is not at all difficult to solve if we 
will but look it squarely in the face, divide it into 
its component parts, and study each factor inde- 
pendently. Analysis of the problem will show that 
the essential elements of which it is composed do 
not exceed three in number: (1) The home environ- 
ment of the pupils; (2) the size of the classes; and 
(3) the average age of the children. 

Now there is no mystery in regard to any of these 
points. All the facts may be readily ascertained and 
their value determined without great difficulty. As 
to the home environment of the pupils, the neighbor- 
hood in which a school is placed will be frequently 
sufficient to tell the story. Some schools are at- 
tended, for the most part, by children whose parents 
are considerably above the average in culture and 
material possessions; in others, the majority of the 
pupils are from homes where the parents themselves 
are less cultured and less favorably situated finan- 
cially, but are fully as solicitous for the welfare of 
their children ; while some schools are situated in the 
slums, where the pupils have the poorest of super- 
vision at home. In regard to the size of the classes 
and the average age of the pupils, the facts are, of 
course, at hand. 

A study of the figures in the table from these 
several standpoints will show conclusively that the 
influence of all these factors has been very much 
exaggerated, and, therefore, that the cause of un- 
favorable results must be sought, largely, at least, 
[107] 



SriENTlFlC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 



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[ 108 ] 



A TEST IN ARITHMETIC 

on the pedagogical side. I shall not attempt, in the 
present paper, to enter into the discussion of the 
pedagogical aspect of the problem, but shall try to 
throw some light on that phase in the next chapter. 
Here I shall merely endeavor to show that in sug- 
gesting a standard as to time and results, the com- 
plicating conditions have all been considered. 

If the part that is played by the home environment 
should be as important as it is generally supposed 
to be, we should, of course, expect to find that the 
schools represented in the upper part of the table 
had been attended by children from cultured homes, 
while those in the lower part had been attended by 
those whose home environment was very poor. How- 
ever, if a line should be drawn across the middle 
of the table, and the schools above it compared with 
those below, such a condition would not be found. 
Indeed, careful inspection would show that the odds 
were certainly not in favor of the "aristocratic" dis- 
tricts. Of the eighteen schools, three in particular 
are representative of the latter, and the best of these 
secured the tenth place, while the others ranked 
eleventh and sixteenth, respectively. The school that 
ranked seventh was distinctively a school of the 
slums. That is to say, the school laboring under the 
poorest conditions in respect to home environment 
obtained a better standing than any one of the so- 
called aristocratic schools. The building which 
stands fifth is representative of conditions just a 
shade better than those of the slums. And when I 
add that, from the standpoint of environment, the 
schools of City I did not average a single degree bet- 
[ 109 ] 



SCiKNTi FU' IS! AN V(;F.Mi-,N'r IN i-'.nrcwrioN 

l(M- Ih.ni Ihosr of CW'ws W n\u\ >11, I li.-ivr s!\'h\ 
oiu)Ut;li to show Mint I In* poor n^siills sct-unul in i\\c 
\n\icr fitiivs cannot he coiulonvd on [\\c t;roiiiul of 
imf.'ivor.iblt^ rnvironnnMil . 'IMiiis, ms in .spflliiii;-, so 
in .'iril lmu*t i<\ I Ins niounl.'un, upon flosi* nisptn-lion, 
thvlndh's tlown to tlio sizo of :\ niolt'lull. 

iMpiallv surprisnii;-, if nnli>tul not nior»> nuTt^dihti', 
may appi\'ir tlu* stattantait that no altt>waiu-i> wliat 
t'\rr is to hi* niatii* for tl»t> si/r iA' \\\c fh'iss ni jud^ini^ 
[\\c results o( niv ti\st, I sliall not rnt«M- nito tin* ilt>- 
tails in rt'i;aril to tins point, hut will tlisnuss it with 
tlu- irniarU that tlu> ninnhiM- oi' pupils por class was 
laii^iM* in t hr hiolu'sl si\ si'hools than it was in the 
schools o( City \ 1, and that tlu> classics wen* <*\ccj)- 
tit>na.lly small in the siluu)l that stands at the lower 

'V\\v relation ht^twtHMi the ai;i* of t lu^ pupil and his 
arit hniet ii'al power is a (|uesti(»n which has been yi>ry 
wiilily disciissiui. Some educators hayc takiai the 
stand that tluMi> is not miu'h objiu'l in layint;' stress 
on arithmetic in t hi* early years; that arithmetical 
[)ower increases naturally with ai;e; and that any 
dt*(ii'iency that may be manifest in the lower tirades 
will be reailily com[>ensati*d for by the rapidity with 
which the children proi;ress when they t*nter the 
hii;lier ones. The belief has, therefore, l)ecoine (|uite 
i^eneral that there is a direct relation betwi*en ai^e 
and results; and for this reason many teachers mii;ht 
bt* uicIiiuhI to attribute the >ariations in results to 
difTerences in the a^es of the pupils, n-rade for i^rade, 
in the liilVerent schools. 

As in other ped a ironical problems, so in this, facts 
" I 110 1 



A 'J I'.S'J" \S AIMJ/IMI'/I H: 

|>r(>v«' liow little fj< (xridcricc is to \>f p\;i('(<\ on a 
priori rruHoriin^. 'J'liut. tjicrc is a r<'^ij|;j.r irnf>rr>v(- 
ifurit- in arit.firnct.ic- an t.fic cJiilrJ at. hcJkjoJ arivanctcH 
in years i,s fxrfcct.ly inic ; anrj t.fiiH point: in very 
clearly sliown \)y \.\u- fact, that,, wit.li very i'<-w exr;ep- 
t.ions, ifjc class averages on tin- rcfxat.erJ prof^hriis 
irri|:)rov(; i'votii ^rarJc f,o ^rarJ<-. [Jut. tfiis in itself cJocm 
not. jL(Jve us the jfi forrriatifui we ar(t seeking. Jri \.\\(: 
first. f)lace, \hc ii^nn-.s alon<* (Jo not. UU us to what, 
cxt.cnt. i}i(; irnf>rovefnerit. was dut; t.o tifrc, in Fiow far 
it. was fh<- result, of practice , or wfia-t. pjiirt. h^ifJ heen 
[)lay((J \>y inst.ruct.ion. iJcsifJcs, it. sfjouhJ not. he 
for^^ot.t.cn tfiat. the f)rohlcfn wit.fi wfiirtti wc arc now 
dealing is not. a rjualit at.jvc, hut. a quantit ;ji.five, one. 
'J'fiat. cfiildrcn iifi[)rovc as t.fic^y advan(;c i'fon\ ^raric 
to /^radc may t)c taken for ^rant.ecJ. Jt, is t.lu; rato 
of progress with wliicfi wc sire. r;onc.erried. 

'^I'tiat tfie ditIerenc(fH in results in tfje hc[ioo1h ex- 
arrnn(;(J went no\. rJue to differenc(;H in a^e may Int 
readily sliown \)y eliminating t.fie a^e factor entirely, 
which may h<.' done hy taking the a^e of tfie pu[)ilH 
inst.(.'ad of tfje frnulc as the hasis of comf>arison. 
I'or this [>urf)Ose 'J'afJe IJ has Ix-en [>rej)ared. 'J'hat, 
t.ahle is hased on t.h<; results ohtained upon f)rofjlems 
t.fiat. wi-nt carried t.firou^h t.firee ^rarJes. '^J'he fourth, 
fifth, arifi sixt.fi y<rar f>ap(;rs cont.;j.irierJ three profj- 
lerns in common, and t.iiis is true also of the paf>ers 
for tfj(; sixth, sevr.ntfi, and eigfitfi ^rarJes.' The 
taf;le shows, first, tfi'r results ohtained in the fourtfi, 
fifth, aruJ sixth grades oi' the fii^hest six scfiools as 

'Sf<* ttie, first t.Fire.c prot)Jf;rns tor ttie bixtti urxi ei^^htti years 
Of I pagCH 1^3 arid l^/>. 

[Ill 1 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

compared with the lowest six, taken collectively, upon 
the repeated problems ; secondly, those obtained upon 
the repeated problems in the sixth, seventh, and 
eighth grades of the highest five schools as compared 
with the lowest six ; and, thirdly, the average ages of 
the pupils in the grades and schools stated. 

I did not have an opportunity to obtain the ages 
of the pupils of all the schools considered in Table 
II. However, in computing the average ages the 
majority of these schools were represented, and the 
complete returns could not have changed the figures 
more than a month or two one way or the other. If 
the comparisons had been made between the schools 
v/here the ages had all been obtained, the showing 
would have been practically the same as in the 
table. Moreover, in arithmetic, the differences in 
the results are so very marked all along the line 
that microscopic distinctions are in no way called 

for. rT^ XT 

Table II. 





* 1 


5 


6 




1^ 




0) 

< 


§3 

a. 


< 




Six highest schools . . . 
Six lowest schools 


11.9 
11.0 


62.8 
29.0 


12.6 
12.0 


84.3 
49.8 


13.4 
13.4 


96.3 
61.4 




6 


7 


8 


Five highest schools . . 
Six lowest schools 


13.4 
13.4 


49.5 
11.0 


14.1 
13.11 


71.9 
29.0 


14.11 
14.5 


90.4 
38.0 



[112] 



A TEST IN ARITHMETIC 

A glance at the ages will show that the average 
age of the pupils of the schools that showed the 
best results was about five months higher than that 
of the pupils of the schools that did poorest. For 
the fourth grade the difference was nine months, 
and for the fifth and eighth grades, six months. In 
the sixth and seventh grades, however, the ages 
were practically the same. But the factor of age 
may be completely eliminated by comparing the 
results of a given grade of the successful schools 
with those of a higher grade of the unsuccessful ones. 
Thus, in the fourth grade of the successful schools 
the average was 62.8, as against 49.8 in the fifth 
year, and 61.4 in the sixth year of the unsuccessful 
ones. Consequently, in this instance, the results in 
the unsuccessful schools did not equal those of the 
successful ones until the pupils were nineteen months 
older and had had the advantage of two years' addi- 
tional instruction and practice. 

Similar comparisons in regard to the higher 
grades show even a greater disparity, as the eighth 
year pupils of the unsuccessful schools did not even 
catch up to those of the sixth year of the successful 
ones. In the case of the sixth and seventh year 
classes, where the ages were practically alike, the 
full class averages may be compared. For the sixth 
year they were 75.6 as against 41.1 ; and for the 
seventh year 61.4 as against 22.8. These facts cer- 
tainly constitute a striking blow at the theory of 
those who believe that arithmetic is a matter of 
natural evolution. 

One other point here calls for consideration. The 
[113] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

idea is generally accepted that an examination in 
arithmetic fr'wvn in the mornin^r will show much more 
favorable results than one given in the afternoon; 
and it irilglil, therefore, be supposed that the schools 
that did best had been exairu'ned in the niorninfr, and 
vice versa. 

When the table is analyzed from this standpoint 
the indications a[)f)ear to favor I he theory; but the 
(juant.itative asf)ec;t has certainly been exaggerated. 
Looking at the facts, we find that the first four 
schools in the order of merit had been examined in 
the morning. However, in the school which stands 
(irih, I he examination was given in the afternoon, 
and the average was (54 j)er cent, or only li [)er cent 
lower than that of the school next preceding, and 
5 per cent lower than the school that ranked third. 
The point of particular interest is the fact that the 
school, by being examined in the afternoon, did not 
lose its classification. The first three schools of City 
I were examined in the morning and did well. I'he 
fourth school of that city was examined in the after- 
noon and also did well. 

In ('ity VI, School 1 was examined in thc^ morn- 
ing, and did ♦$ f)er cent better than those examined 
in the afternoon, obtaining an average of 39 as 
against 3() ; and School 1, City VII, by being ex- 
amined in the morning, secured an average of 40 per 
cent. In a word. Schools 2 and J3, City VI, were 
examined in the afternoon and did poorly; School 
1 of the same city was examined in the morning and 
also did j)oorly. And the sairje remarks apply to 
City VII. Thus, while there seems to be some ad- 

[11-1] 



A TEST IN ARITHMETIC 

vantage in an examination given in the morning, 
the figures appear to leave no doubt that a school 
that can do well in the morning can also do well in 
the afternoon, and, conversely, that a school that 
does poorly in the afternoon will also do poorly in 
the morning. I have heard it stated that the differ- 
ence between a morning and an afternoon examina- 
tion will probably reach 20 per cent. If so, what 
would have been the result if School 1, City VI, and 
School 1, City VII, had been examined in the after- 
noon? 

Now, taking all the facts into consideration, 
which of the schools examined may be said to have 
made a satisfactory showing? Personally, I believe 
the demand is not placed too high when the line 
dividing the satisfactory from the unsatisfactory 
schools is drawn across the table under School 4, 
City I, the last of the buildings making creditable 
averages in all the grades. In the school next in 
order the results were more than satisfactory in the 
fourth, fifth, and sixth grades, but unsatisfactory in 
the seventh and eighth. All the other schools showed 
too many weak spots to be passed as satisfactory. 

The general average for all schools examined was, 
in round numbers, 55 per cent, made up as follows: 
GO per cent for the fourth year, 70 per cent for the 
fifth, 60 per cent for the sixth, 40 per cent for the 
seventh, and 50 per cent for the eighth. In view 
of what the satisfactory schools have shown, it seems 
to me that 60 per cent for the fourth grade, 70 per 
cent for the fifth, and 60 per cent for the sixth are 
reasonable expectations. However, 40 per cent for 
[115] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

the seventh grade and 50 per cent for the eighth are 
too low, as these figures are not at all representative 
of what the successful schools have been able to ac- 
complish, but result from the fact that, in the ma- 
jority of instances, the seventh and eighth grades 
were lamentably weak. As the average for the 
seventh grade of the five successful schools was 61.4, 
and that for the eighth grade 77.2, I think that less 
than 50 per cent for the seventh year and 60 per 
cent for the eighth should not be regarded as satis- 
factory. This would raise the general average from 
55 to 60. But a school average of 60 per cent or 
more should not be looked upon as satisfactory un- 
less the grade averages were met in four cases out of 
the five. A provision for failure in one grade is 
reasonable, because there may have been particular 
causes of failure in an individual class. The chil- 
dren may have been exceptionally dull, or the class 
may have been in the hands of a substitute, etc. 
But, in my opinion, failure in more than one grade 
denotes a weakness which calls for a remedy. The 
above figures apply to a test taken at, or any time 
after, the middle of the year. 

In suggesting a standard, it is, of course, under- 
stood that the figures mentioned in the last para- 
graph would only be applicable to an examination 
whose degree of difficulty was the same as my own. 
Teachers desirous of knowing how their pupils com- 
pared with those of other schools could try the ques- 
tions as I have given them; or, if they feared that 
the publication of the problems had diminished the 
value of the test, they might change the figures with- 
[116] 



A TEST IN ARITHMETIC 

out altering the degree of difficulty. However, in 
due course of time there ought to be no difficulty in 
establishing standards in arithmetic with mathe- 
matical precision. This may be quite readily done 
by selecting types of examples and determining by 
research what percentage ought to be obtained on 
each of them by the class for which they are in- 
tended. When this point has been reached, a stand- 
ard will also have been fixed for a combination of 
examples of various degrees of difficulty. 

In the present chapter I shall not endeavor to sug- 
gest a standard in regard to the mechanical side of 
arithmetic, as a discussion of the details of that 
phase of the question would carry us too far. I 
merely wish to call attention to a fact which may 
appear strange to the majority of teachers, namely, 
that, from the standpoint of results, the mechanical 
side of arithmetic has shown itself to be very closely 
related to the thought side. In other words, the 
schools that showed the best thinking also made the 
smallest number of mechanical errors. Indeed, when 
we compare the first six schools in the table with 
the last six, we find the school average 69.7 as 
against 35.8, or double, while the percentage of me- 
chanical errors is 6.1 as against 13, or half. There- 
fore, broadly speaking, a stipulated demand in re- 
gard to the thought side of arithmetic includes, 
indirectly, a demand in relation to the mechanical 
side. 

A glance at the general average of mechanical 
errors shows a marked improvement from the fourth 
grade to the sixth, the percentages being 14.8, 8.1, 

[117] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

and 3.9, respectively. Thus, in round numbers, only 
half as many errors were made in the fifth year as 
in the fourth, and only half as many in the sixth 
year as in the fifth. That the improvement in me- 
chanical arithmetic should be so decided from grade 
to grade may be readily explained by the fact that 
simple computation appeals altogether to the mem- 
ory, which fixes the various combinations of numbers 
more and more firmly as the result of endless repeti- 
tion. 

The figures show that the number of mechanical 
errors was larger in the seventh and eighth years 
than in the sixth. This, however, does not indicate 
retrogression, but is due to the fact that the basis 
of comparison was not the same. In the upper two 
grades the mistakes were made principally in the 
placing of the decimal point — an element that did 
not come into play, to any considerable extent, in 
the lower grades. The seventh and eighth year 
classes, however, are again compared on practically 
the same basis, and, as before, the difference is 
marked in favor of the higher grade. 

Let us now see what can be learned from Table I 
as to the relation between the time devoted to arith- 
metic and the results. We shall then be in a position 
to form an estimate regarding the amount of time 
that should be allowed with a view to the accom- 
plishment of satisfactory results. 

A glance at the figures will tell us at once that 
there is no direct relation between time and results ; 
that special pressure does not necessarily lead to 
[118] 



A TEST IN ARITHMETIC 

success, and, conversely, that lack of pressure does 
not necessarily mean failure. 

In the first place, it is interesting to note that 
the amount of time devoted to arithmetic in the 
school that obtained the lowest average, 25 per cent, 
was practically the same as it was in the one where 
the highest average, 80 per cent, was obtained. In 
the former the regular time for arithmetic in all 
grades was forty-five minutes a day, but some addi- 
tional time was given. In the latter the time varied 
in the different classes, but averaged fifty-three min- 
utes daily. This shows an extreme variation in re- 
sults under the same appropriation of time. 

Looking again toward the bottom of the list, we 
find three schools with an average of 36 per cent. 
In one of these, insufficient pressure might be sug- 
gested as a reason for the unsatisfactory results, 
only thirty minutes daily having been devoted to 
arithmetic. The second school, however, gave forty- 
eight, while the third gave forty-five. This certainly 
seems to indicate that a radical defect in the quality 
of instruction cannot be offset by an increase in 
quantity. 

From these few facts two important deductions 
may be made : First, that the unsatisfactory results 
cannot be accounted for on the ground of insufficient 
instruction; and, secondly, that the schools showing 
the favorable results cannot be accused of having 
made a fetich of arithmetic. These statements are 
further justified by the fact that the four schools 
of City I, which, on the whole, stood highest, gave 
[119] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

practically the same amount of time to arithmetic as 
the three schools of City VII, which stood lowest. 

Now, bearing in mind tlie standard suggested in 
regard to the results, what should be set down as a 
reasonable time allowance? 

A glance at Table I will show us that out of the 
eighteen schools examined, five only succeeded in 
obtaining satisfactory results, and that the time de- 
voted to aritlmietlc in these schools varied from 
forty-five to sixty minutes a day. Taking the schools 
in the order of merit, the time allotment was fifty- 
three, sixty, and forty-five minutes. That the high- 
est two schools had given fifty-three and sixty, re- 
spectively, does not indicate that they could not 
have met the demand If tlie time had been limited to 
forty-five. Indeed, the results secured in the school 
at tlie top show such a very large margin above the 
demand that a reduction of elglit minutes per day 
could not have sufficed to shatter the structure, and 
a similar assumption may be made in the case of 
the school standing next. As the conditions under 
which the five successful schools labored were not in 
any way exceptional, I think it is perfectly reason- 
able to say that the results ought to be satisfactory 
if the time be limited to forty-five minutes a day. 
All the schools that succeeded proved their ability 
to do tlie work in forty-five minutes, and most of 
the schools that failed proved their inability to suc- 
ceed in spite of even a larger appropriation of time. 

While the facts appear to indicate that forty-five 
minutes will suffice, they do not show that that 
amount of time is actually required to accomplish 
[120] 



A TEST IN ARITHMETIC 

satisfactory results. It is true that out of the five 
schools giving less than forty-five minutes, the re- 
sults were unsatisfactory in four. Of the latter, one 
school gave forty-two minutes and obtained an aver- 
age of 40 per cent, an average so far below the 
margin that an additional three minutes could not 
possibly have saved the day. Similar remarks are 
applicable to the school where a time allotment of 
forty minutes was followed by an average of 45 per 
cent. In City VI, the schools that gave thirty and 
thirty-three minutes, respectively, obtained aver- 
ages of only 36 and 39 per cent; but in the other 
school of that locality, where the time was forty- 
eight minutes, the results were not any better. It is 
clear, therefore, that the failure in these four un- 
successful schools was not due simply to the fact 
that the time was less than forty-five minutes. 

In spelling, it was not difficult to draw conclu- 
sions as to the limit of useful instruction — the point 
where attention and effort cease and beyond which 
additional pressure is not rewarded by additional 
return. A large proportion of the schools having 
reduced the time, it was possible to institute compari- 
sons on a broad scale between the results obtained 
where much time had been devoted to spelling and 
those secured where but little time had been given to 
it; and it was seen that the schools devoting forty 
minutes a day to spelling did not do' any better than 
the schools where but ten or fifteen minutes had been 
given to the subject. This proved that there was 
nothing to be gained by continuing the instruction 
beyond fifteen minutes a day. In arithmetic, on the 
[121] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

other hand, the basis of comparison from the stand- 
point of time is not nearly so wide, as it is still the 
custom in the vast majority of the schools to devote 
at least forty-five minutes daily to the subject. For 
the present let us accept forty-five minutes as a rea- 
sonable time allowance for arithmetic ; but let us 
reduce the allowance if we should succeed in finding 
a reasonable number of schools showing satisfactory 
results with less instruction. 

The discussion in the preceding pages has tended 
to show that arithmetic presents certain difficulties 
which are quite readily overcome in some schools, 
while seemingly insurmountable in others. As the 
teachers, taken all in all, were apparently as con- 
scientious and as well trained in the schools that 
failed as in those that succeeded, it is reasonable to 
suppose that the principal cause of failure has been 
a matter of misdirected effort. But whatever the 
trouble may be, it is evident that its nature must be 
clearly understood before remedial measures can be 
intelligently discussed. Therefore, the next step in 
our researches must lie in endeavoring to discover 
the source of the trouble ; and I shall present some 
facts regarding this point in the next chapter. 

FOURTH YEAR. 

1. A man bought a lot of land for $1,743, and built upon it 
a house costing $5,483. He sold them both for $10,000. How 
much money did he make? 

2. If a boy pays ij^2.S3 for a hundred papers, and sells them 
at four cents apiece, how much money does he make? 

3. If there were 4,839 class-rooms in New York City, and 
47 children in each class-room, how many children would there 
be in the New York schools? 

[ 122] 



A TEST IN ARITHMETIC 

4. A man bought a farm for $16,575, paying $85 an acre. 
How many acres were there in the farm? 

5. What will 24 quarts of cream cost at $1.20 a gallon? 

6. A lady bought 4 pounds of coffee at 27 cents a pound, 
16 pounds of flour at 4 cents a pound, 15 pounds of sugar at 6 
cents a pound, and a basket of peaches for 95 cents. She 
handed the storekeeper a $10 note. How much change did 
she receive? 

7. I have $9,786. How much more must I have in order to 
be able to pay for a farm worth $17,225? 

8. If I buy 8 dozen pencils at 37 cents a dozen, and sell 
them at 5 cents apiece, how much money do I make? 

FIFTH YEAR. 

1. A man bought a lot of land for $1,743, and built upon it 
a house costing $5,482. He sold them both together for $10,- 
000. How much did he make? 

2. If a boy pays $2.83 for a hundred papers, and sells them 
at four cents apiece, how much does he make? 

3. What will 24 quarts of cream cost at $1.20 a gallon? 

4. If I buy 8 dozen pencils at 37 cents a dozen, and seU 
them at 5 cents apiece, how much money do I make? 

5. A flour merchant bought 1,437 barrels of flour at $7 a 
barrel. He sold 900 of these barrels at $9 a barrel, and the 
remainder at $6 a barrel. How much did he make? 

6. How many feet long is a telegraph wire extending from 
New York to New Haven, a distance of 74 miles? There are 
5,280 feet in a mile. 

7. A merchant bought 15 pieces of cloth, each containing 62 
yards. He sold 234 yards. How many dress patterns of 12 
yards each did he have left? 

8. Frank had $3.08. He spent 1^4 of it for a cap, ^ of it for 
a bail, and with the remainder bought a book. How much 
did the book cost? 

SIXTH YEAR. 

1. If a boy pays $2.83 for a hundred papers, and sells 
them at 4 cents apiece, how much does he make? 

2. What will 24 quarts of cream cost at $1.20 a gallon? 

3. If I buy 8 dozen pencils at 37 cents a dozen, and sell 
them at 5 cents apiece, how much do I make? 

[ 123] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

4. A flour merchant bought 1,437 barrels of flour at $7 a 
barrel. He sold 900 of these barrels at $9 a barrel, and the 
remainder at $6 a barrel. How much did he make? 

5. If a train runs 31% miles an hour, how long will it take 
the train to run from Buffalo to Omaha, a distance of 1,045 
miles? 

6. If a map 10 inches wide and 16 inches long is made on a 
scale of 50 miles to the inch, what is the area in square miles 
that the map represents? 

7. The salt water which was obtained from the bottom of a 
mine of rock salt contained 0.08 of its weight of pure salt. 
What weight of salt water was it necessary to evaporate in 
order to obtain 3,896 pounds of salt? 

8. A gentleman gave away y^ of the books in his library, 
lent Yq of the remainder, and sold % of what was left. He 
then had 420 books remaining. How many had he at first? 



SEVENTH YEAR. 

1. If a map 10 inches wide and 16 inches long is made on 
a scale of 50 miles to the inch, what is the area in square 
miles that the map represents? 

2. The salt water which was obtained from the bottom of a 
mine of rock salt contained 0.08 of its weight of pure salt. 
What weight of salt water was it necessary to evaporate in 
order to obtain 3,896 pounds of salt? 

3. A gentleman gave away 14 of the books in his library, 
lent Yq of the remainder, and sold y^ of what was left. He 
then had 420 books remaining. How many had he at first? 

4. A farmer's wife bought 2.75 yards of table linen at 
$0.87 a yard and 16 yards of flannel at $0.55 a yard. She 
paid in butter at $0.27 a pound. How many pounds of butter 
was she obliged to give? 

5. If coffee sold at 33 cents a pound gives a profit of 10 
per cent, what per cent of profit would there be if it were 
sold at 36 cents a pound? 

6. Sold steel at $27.60 a ton, with a profit of 15 per cent, 
and a total profit of $184.50. What quantity was sold? 

7. If a woman can weave 1 inch of rag carpet a yard wide 
in 4 minutes, how many hours will she be obliged to work in 
order to weave the carpet for a room 24 feet long and 24 
feet wide? No deduction is to be made for waste. 

[ 124] 



A TEST IN ARITHMETIC 

8. A fruit dealer bought 300 apples at the rate of 5 for a 
cent, and 300 at 4 for a cent. He sold them all at the rate of 
8 for 5 cents. What per cent did he gain on investment? 

EIGHTH YEAR. 

1. If a map 10 inches wide and 16 inches long is made on 
a scale of 50 miles to the inch, what is the area in square 
miles that the map represents? 

2. The salt water which was obtained from the bottom of a 
mine of rock salt contained 0.08 of its weight of pure salt. 
What weight of salt water was it necessary to evaporate in 
order to obtain 3,896 pounds of salt? 

3. A gentleman gave away ^ of the books in his library, 
lent Yq of the remainder, and sold % of what was left. He 
then had 420 books remaining. How many had he at first? 

4. A man sold 50 horses at $126.00 each. On one-half of 
them he made 20 per cent, and on the other half he lost 10 
per cent. How much did he gain? 

5. Sold steel at $27.60 a ton, with a profit of 15 per cent, 
and a total profit of $184.50. What quantity was sold? 

6. A fruit dealer bought 300 apples at the rate of 5 for a 
cent, and 300 at 4 for a cent. He sold them all at the rate 
of 8 for 5 cents. What per cent did he gain on his invest- 
ment? 

7. The insurance on % of the value of a hotel and furniture 
cost $420.00. The rate being 70 cents on $100.00, what was 
the value of the property? 

8. Gunpowder is composed of nitre 15 parts, charcoal 3 
parts, and sulphur 2 parts. How much of each in 360 pounds 
of powder? 



[125] 



VIII 



In the preceding chapter I presented the results 
of my test in arithmetic, and the figures showed 
enormous variations. The results, however, were 
distributed with striking regularity ; the differences 
in the percentages obtained by the different schools 
of a given community being, for the most part, 
small. 

That the expenditure of time and effort on the 
part of the pupils should be duly rewarded in some 
localities and very poorly repaid in others indicates 
that in some communities a remedy is called for. 
However, to be effective, the remedy must have an 
eye to the cause, so that our search for remedial 
measures must be, in the first instance, directed to- 
ward the discovery of the cause of success in some 
case^. and of failure in others. With this in view, 
it will be necessary to consider the results in the 
light of each of the elements that enter into the edu- 
cation of the child, as it will not be possible in any 
other way to find the controlling one. 

The number of factors calling for consideration is 

large. However, the problem may be simplified 

through classification ; and in the preceding chapter 

^January-March, 1903. 

[126] 



SUCCESS AND FAILURE IN ARITHMETIC 

I showed how, in the first instance, it might be di- 
vided into two principal parts: (1) The elements 
relating to the pedagogical side; and (2) those of 
resistance offered to the influence of the teaching 
over which the teacher has no direct control. The 
major portion of that chapter was devoted to a 
discussion of the second part of the problem, the 
pupils' side; and I pointed out that the variations 
in results could not be accounted for by differences 
in the circumstances under which the teachers labor 
— differences in the home environment of the pupils, 
their average age, or the size of the classes ; showing 
that the cause of the variations would have to be 
sought on the pedagogical side. In the present 
chapter, I shall direct attention to the latter aspect 
of the problem, and I believe the discussion will not 
be fruitless. 

The pedagogical side of the problem may also be 
subdivided into two principal parts: (1) The fac- 
tors brought into play by the teacher; and (2) the 
elements relating to those appointed to direct and 
supervise the work of the teacher. These factors will 
now be considered in turn. 

The elements brought into play by the teacher, 
though numerous, may be, for practical purposes, 
resolved into three primary factors : 

1. The time devoted to arithmetic; 

2. The methods of instruction ; and 

3. Teaching ability, as represented by a combina- 
tion of education, training, and the personality of 
the teacher. 

The first of these points received attention in the 
[127] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

preceding chapter ; and it was found that the results 
did not bear a direct relation to the amount of time 
devoted to arithmetic, so that this element could not 
be looked upon as the controlling one. I shall here 
merely recall the fact that the schools whose results 
were satisfactory proved their ability to do credit- 
able work with a time allotment of forty-five minutes 
a day, while some of the schools whose results were 
unsatisfactory failed in spite of a larger appropria- 
tion of time. 

After my first article on arithmetic appeared in 
print, the point was raised that the demand in the 
way of home-work might have been greater in the 
successful schpols than in those that had failed, 
indicating that, possibly, in some instances, more 
time had been devoted to arithmetic than showed 
on the surface. During subsequent visits to the 
same schools I looked into this matter with consid- 
erable care; and I found, much to my surprise, that 
by far the greatest amount of home-work in arith- 
metic was required in City VII, whose schools had 
obtained the poorest results. In this locality, it had 
constituted an important feature of every grade 
from the fourth year onward ; the requirement in 
some instances being truly inordinate. On the whole, 
the average time devoted to it was certainly not less 
than thirty minutes a day. On the other hand, home- 
work in arithmetic was looked upon with disfavor by 
the teachers of all the schools that I have called suc- 
cessful, the first five in the table, and had been prac- 
tically abandoned in nine cases out of ten. 

These facts show conclusively that home-work in 
[ 128] 



SUCCESS AND FAILURE IN ARITHMETIC 

arithmetic is not the controlling factor in the ac- 
complishment of results. Moreover, they ought to 
carry their lesson to every superintendent in the 
land. In view of the results and of my interviews 
with principals and teachers, I feel confident that 
home-work in arithmetic means a tax upon the time 
and energy of the pupil for which he receives very 
meagre, if any, compensation. Consequently, I wish 
to add to my suggestion, as to the amount of time 
to be apportioned to arithmetic, that the forty-five 
minutes daily should stand for the preparation and 
recitation combined. 

Secondly, methods of teaching can certainly not 
be looked upon as the controlling element. In most 
schools, the methods nowadays employed are modern, 
though they may vary in regard to details. In some 
instances, special methods, based on special psycho- 
logical theories, had been followed; and while the 
teachers who used them were, as a rule, enthusiastic 
in their praise, they did not seem to have proved a 
panacea. In the schools that passed my test satis- 
factorily no special methods had been in use. 

There is, however, one thing in relation to the 
teaching of arithmetic that must be regarded as 
unusually important, and which should receive the 
attention of every educator. At one point in my 
investigation I had been led to believe that it was 
the controlling factor ; but further observation com- 
pelled me to abandon the notion. The idea is this, 
that no new step in arithmetic should be taken until 
all the principles previously acquired are perfectly 
clear in the minds of the pupils. Where this plan is 
[129] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

not observed, the teachers labor upon the theory 
that the pupils on entering a new grade are per- 
fectly familiar with everything that had been covered 
in previous grades, and are therefore prepared to 
enter into the new work without any delay. On the 
other hand, where the principle is recognized, the 
teacher of the new grade does not take such knowl- 
edge for granted. One seventh-year teacher told me 
that she does not assume any knowledge on the part 
of the pupils beyond that of addition, subtraction, 
multiplication, and division of whole numbers. In 
such instances, the teacher, on receiving a new class, 
does not at once begin with the work laid down for 
her grade, but takes up previous work, chapter by 
chapter, until she strikes a weak point, where she 
lingers as long as she thinks necessary. Indeed, I 
have found a number of schools where the teachers 
are accustomed to devote several weeks to reviewing 
the work of previous grades before even touching 
upon their own grade work. Here progress is ap- 
parently slow ; but by securing a firm foundation at 
the outset, the pupils are so much better prepared 
for the new work that they grasp it much more 
readily than otherwise, and before the end of the 
term the grade work is covered without any diffi- 
culty. Where the teachers proceed from chapter to 
chapter without any regard for previous work, the 
pupils are apt to sail along in a hazy atmosphere; 
and when taken out of their routine path, they do not 
know which way to turn. 

Thoroughness is, undoubtedly, one of the secrets 
of success. Indeed, I do not see how success may be 
[130] 



SUCCESS AND FAILURE IN ARITHMETIC 

expected without it. However, I soon discovered 
that the review as described does not in itself insure 
success. Failure in spite of its adoption may be 
accounted for in two ways. In the first place, the 
review may be formal, rather than thorough, and 
therefore lacking in the spirit that makes for suc- 
cess. Secondly, the teacher's work may be thorough 
without stimulating thought, and the results are not 
satisfactory unless the pupils are capable of inde- 
pendent thinking. Consequently, something else is 
required to assure success. 

The next point to claim our attention, the quali- 
fications of the teacher, natural and acquired, is 
popularly regarded as the controlling one ; hence the 
adage, "As the teacher, so is the school." However, 
that the variations in the results cannot be accounted 
for by differences in the general qualifications of the 
teachers is proved by the manner in which the 
results are distributed. Few will take exception to 
the statement that marked individual variations will 
be found among the members of every corps of teach- 
ers. Therefore, if general ability were the con- 
trolling factor, the extreme variations in results 
should be found in the different class-rooms of the 
same locality. But this condition does not appear 
in the table, where it is shown that in certain locali- 
ties practically all the results were good, while in 
certain other cities practically all the results were 
poor. 

It might be argued, in explanation of this circum- 
stance, that, in spite of individual variations, all the 
teachers of some communities are professionally com- 
[131] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

petent, while in some others they are all incompetent. 
But this, again, does not accord with the facts ; for 
if a line should be drawn across the table under, say, 
the seventh school, and the teachers of the communi- 
ties above it compared with those of the localities 
below, no marked differences would be noticed. In all 
the cities represented some teachers may be found 
who have had both a high-school education and a 
normal-school training; some who have had a high- 
school education only ; some with much and others 
with little experience; some with considerable and 
others with little natural endowment. And as to 
care in selection, the most favorable conditions will 
probably be found in Cities IV and VI ; and still these 
localities failed to reach the standard. 

We have now exhausted the principal factors 
brought into play by the teacher, as we have those 
that belong to the pupil, and as yet the controlling 
element has not been found. If my investigation is 
to be rewarded, the object of our search must, there- 
fore, exist among the elements brought into the 
problem by those employed to supervise and direct 
the work of the teachers. And the facts have led me 
to believe that it is here that the controlling factor 
lies. My conviction is based on the circumstance 
that, in every instance, a variation in the results ap- 
pears to accord with a variation in a special phase of 
the supervision. If my interpretation of the facts 
is correct, we are forced to conclude that the results 
secured in the average class-room do not represent 
the powers of the average teacher, but the response 
to what is expected of her; so that, ultimately, the 
[132] 



SUCCESS AND FAILURE IN ARITHMETIC 

problem of results becomes a question of demand and 
supply. And my deduction is this, that the teachers 
will supply what their supervisors demand, provided 
the demand be placed within reasonable bounds. A 
deduction of this nature is by no means an unnatural 
one ; for it is a matter of common experience that the 
services rendered by a set of employees are deter- 
mined by the demands of the management rather 
than the efficiency of the individuals, assuming, of 
course, that due care is exercised to see that the 
demands are enforced. And the facts appear to show 
that, in this regard, the school does not differ from 
other institutions. 

The leading pedagogical functions of the superin- 
tendent, under an ideal system of supervision, may, 
perhaps, be put down as five in number : 

1. The preparation of the course of study; 

2. The apportionment of time to the individual 
subjects; 

3. Offering suggestions to teachers, during meet- 
ings and visits, as to methods of teaching and the 
treatment of children; 

4. The establishment of demands in regard to 
results ; and 

5. The testing for results to sec whether the 
teachers are living up to these demands. 

Let us now look into each of these factors and try 
to find the crucial point. 

Owing to differences in educational ideals, the 

courses laid down for arithmetic vary considerably 

in different localities. Therefore, it may be argued 

that, from a comparative standpoint, the results 

[133] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

obtained in different communities will depend upon 
the character of the test ; that the pupils of a given 
locality might do well with one test and poorly with 
another, and vice versa. But, in the preparation of 
a test to be submitted to different localities, the 
objection may be allayed by bearing in mind the dif- 
ferences in the course of study, and, in consequence, 
rejecting all problems of a special character, while 
selecting from those belonging to general arithmetic, 
and which, therefore, come within the scope of every 
school. 

The general verdict was that my problems were 
fair to all. Even in the localities that failed no 
exception has been taken to my test, which is in 
itself convincing evidence that the questions did 
come within the scope of every curriculum. Conse- 
quently, the differences in the results cannot be at- 
tributed to differences in courses of study. In some 
instances, it was instinctively felt by superintendents 
and teachers that the pupils would fail, because the 
questions were presented in a form differing from 
that to which the children had been accustomed; 
and, as a rule, the predictions were verified. In 
other localities, nothing out of the ordinary was 
found in the questions ; and, as a rule, the schools 
did well. This did not indicate fundamental differ- 
ences in ideals, but rather that the work of some 
schools was more routine in character than that of 
others ; so that the variation in the results showed, 
primarily, that the pupils of some localities were 
more ready than those of others in the practical 
application of principles. In other words, the in- 
[ 134] 



SUCCESS AND FAILURE IN ARITHMETIC 

struction had done more to stimulate thought in some 
instances than in others, without regard to funda- 
mental aims. 

Another point relating to the course of study also 
deserves consideration. It is, namely, that in some 
localities the ground is covered more rapidly than 
in others, and, therefore, that several of my prob- 
lems may have come too early for certain schools. 
This would apply particularly to the seventh-year 
paper, which contained several rather difficult prob- 
lems in percentage. To allay all doubts on this 
score, however, it will be simply necessary to discard 
the seventh year entirely and take the eighth year 
as a basis of comparison. But the differences in 
results in the eighth year were fully as marked as 
they were in the seventh; and as there was not a 
problem in the eighth-year paper beyond the scope 
of any eighth grade, this objection also becomes 
invalid. 

The next point, the amount of time devoted to 
arithmetic, has been already considered, and requires 
no further discussion here to prove that this is not 
the controlling element. 

The third point involves that feature of supervi- 
sion which renders the superintendent an inspirer of 
teachers, and which, in recent decades, has been 
receiving an ever increasing amount of attention. In 
some localities this feature is carried so far as to 
convert the entire school system into a permanent 
training school for teachers. Here the superintend- 
ent is in constant communication with his teachers, 
through general and grade meetings and visits to 
[135] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

the schools ; and when he is imbued with modern 
pedagogical ideas, his influence on the spirit of the 
schools is marked, and the atmosphere of the class- 
room assumes an entirely different character from 
that which prevails in the old-fashioned, mechanical 
school. The relation between teacher and pupil is 
no longer that of master and servant, but resembles 
rather the relation of parent and child. This spirit 
is governed by the idea that the pupil is an indi- 
vidual who can think, feel, and act, and not merely 
a passive recipient of facts. There are many 
localities in our country where the inspirational 
system of supervision has been carried to its logi- 
cal conclusion, and where liberty without license 
prevails. 

But the inspiration of the teachers by the super- 
intendent is not the controlling factor in the accom- 
plishment of results ; for superintendents' meetings 
and visits have been as much in vogue in the localities 
that did poorly as in those that did well. Conse- 
quently, the inspirational element must also be 
eliminated. 

We have now considered all the important factors 
except the establishment of standards and the test- 
ing for results; and these, strictly speaking, merely 
represent two sides of a single element. As I have 
already stated, the facts tend to prove that the 
results are regulated by the demand ; and the latter, 
in my opinion, is represented by the character of the 
tests to which the pupils are periodically submitted. 
This means, in other words, that the controlling, 
factor in the accomplishment of results is to be found 
[IS6] 



SUCCESS AND FAILURE IN ARITHMETIC 

in the system of examination employed, some systems 
leading to better results than others. 

The test, however, has two different meanings, 
which must not be confounded with each other. In 
one instance, it is intended to determine the fitness 
of the pupil for promotion; while in the other its 
purpose is that of demonstrating the rate and char- 
acter of the progress made by the class as a whole, 
i.e., whether the teacher is doing satisfactory work. 
As the system of testing for promotion has been 
practically abandoned in every city examined, this 
factor is common to all, and may, therefore, be here 
disregarded. As a rule, the pupil's fitness for pro- 
motion is now determined by the character of his 
daily work, supplemented by the teacher's opinion, 
while the examination as to fitness is reserved for 
those pupils whose term work has been unsatisfactory 
or who appeal from the teacher's adverse judgment. 
The controlling element lies, therefore, in that form 
of examination which is intended as a test of the^ 
teacher's progress. The nature of this test varies 
in different localities ; and, as the results appear to 
vary with its character, a detailed description is 
called for. 

The tests of the teacher's progress may be con- 
veniently summed up in four general classes: 

1. Tests made from time to time by the teachers 
themselves. Each teacher formulates her own ques- 
tions, marks the papers of her own class, and sub- 
mits the results to the superintendent; but no tests 
are made by principal or superintendent. 

2. Tests made in the same way by the teachers; 

[137] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

but the teachers' tests are supplemented from time to 
time by those of the superintendent. 

3. Tests made from time to time by the principals, 
each principal formulating the questions for his own 
school. The results are reported to the superintend- 
ent, but the latter does not make any tests of his 
own. 

4. The same system of testing by the principals ; 
but the principals' tests are supplemented from time 
to time by those of the superintendent. 

The first system means that the demand is fixed by 
each individual teacher, who is made the judge of 
her own progress. As the questions prepared by the 
teacher, when left to her own resources, will natu- 
rally accord with the lines upon which she has been 
teaching, the tendency will be toward routine work. 
Under these circumstances, the minds of the pupils 
will be kept running in a groove, in which they may 
work with remarkable facility, but outside of which 
they are all at sea. In other words, the pupils will 
be able to solve certain problems without any diffi- 
culty when they are presented in the customary way, 
but entirely incapable of solving them when they 
are stated in a different manner. I was once present 
in a class-room when a pupil was called upon to 
analyze a problem in mental arithmetic. He rose 
to his feet, but was silent. After the teacher had 
waited a little while, she said to the child: "Don't 
you know? That's the kind that begins with 
'since.' " This suggestion was sufficient to enable the 
pupil to go through the analysis according to rule. 
Such methods as this will account for the fact that 
[138] 



SUCCESS AND FAILURE IN ARITHMETIC 

a class which will regularly obtain an average of 80 
to 90 per cent on the teacher's test may obtain less 
than 20 per cent on a test such as my own. 

The plan of limiting the tests to those of the 
teacher has been in vogue in City VI, and the results 
may be judged by a glance at the table. I could 
find no other element in this locality to account for 
the failure. In fact, in every way the conditions are 
here above the average. The home surroundings of 
the pupils are, for the most part, favorable; the 
classes are small ; the teachers are selected with more 
than ordinary care; and the superintendent does 
his share from the inspirational standpoint. The 
only thing that seems to be lacking is the test from 
a broader point of view than that of the teacher. 
If the superintendent would inaugurate a system of 
examinations of a different order, there is little doubt 
in my mind that in the course of a year or two the 
results in arithmetic would be improved by at least 
50 per cent. In City IV also the conditions are 
favorable, but the testing is not very systematic. 

Under the second system, the degree of success 
seems to depend upon the nature of the tests pre- 
pared by the superintendent. If he should not 
demand anything beyond a fair knowledge of the 
term's work at the end of the term, and if he should 
have an eye to principles rather than ingenuity in 
their application, his tests may be as routine as 
those of the teacher, and fail to exert a stimulating 
influence. This criticism applies to City VII, where 
the second plan of examinations has been in vogue; 
and when my own test was here placed before the 
[139] 



sciKNTii'ic MANA(;i:ivii':N'r in j^:j)U(:a'1'ion 

piij)lls, llic result WHS chaos. Tlie siipcriiitcrulcnh 
nnd Icaclicrs seemed at once to appreciate the nature 
of the (lidiculty; and I hey feel confident that if I 
should try their schools a^ain, after ^ivin^- I hem a 
little chance to wake up, they would l)e ahle to show 
much belter i-esulls. In another locality, the prin- 
cipal of a school that failed atlrihuled the failure 
to the routine character of the tests to which his 
pu{)ils had heen accustomed. 

Under the third system, the tests are made ])y llie 
princi[)al. Instead of the icacher, thus hrui^in^- uito 
play a hroadei- point of view than the first plan. It 
has the advantage that, in the first instaru'c, it is not 
the teacher herself, hut the principal, who Is made 
the jud^'e of I he teacher's |)ro^ress; ])ul, lackni^- the 
superintendenrs test, the system has the weakness 
of making- the pi-incipal the .pid^e of the pr()«4i'ess 
of his own school. This indicates simply that the 
tests will represeid the demands of the individual 
principals. The pi-incipal of a ^iven school may he 
pell y, and guided hy the desire to make a ^ood show- 
ing, or he may lack the proper j)erspecl ive. In either 
case, the tests may run alon^ routine lines, with an 
eye to ^rade work, and l)i-in^- forth mai'vellous per- 
centages fi-om pupils who would fail com|)letely on 
tests reciuirin^- independent thou/:;ht. On the other 
hand, tlu' piinci|)al may he a man of l)r()ad calihi'e, 
or an ori/^inal ^-enius, whose primary aim does not 
exist in i he endeavor to show \u'^\\ pei-cenl a^-es, hut 
in stimulating |)upils to use their minds. I lis tests 
will call for IndejX'ndeid thought, and I hey cannot he 
passed unless the teachers have taught the pupils to 



SUCCESS AND FAILURE IN ARITHMETIC 

fliink i'or tlicrnsclvcs. 'Jlic percentage's Ijrou^lii out 
by fiis tests may not bo n(.'ar]y so Jii^fi as tliosc; ob- 
tained in tfie school just dc-scribed ; so tfiat, in tlie 
superintendent's records, fiis scliool may stand much 
h>w(.'r tfian the other. However, wfien a test is 
applied wfjich calls for thought, rather than form, 
his pupils will not be mentally paralyzed, and their 
previous training will tell. I'he (.'i^hth-^rad(; teacljer 
of the school at the head of the; tabh- — a school where; 
the tests arc made by the principal — told uw. that 
slie did not think my probh^ms fair, l>ecause* they 
did not t(;st the power of her pu[)ils. Slie was not 
at all proud of them because- Intr class averaged 91 
per cent. She; thought they should have- done.' much 
better than that. And she- was ne)t incline'd to change 
heT mind whe;n she' le'arne;d that the- eighth ^rade; in 
many oi' the.' schools did ne)t average; .'iO pe-r cent. 
^J'he princif)al of this school is ce>nstantly afte-r tlie; 
pupils, wIh) are', there;fe)re, at all time.'S, re.'ady for 
the unusual. 

In localities where- the; principal is made* the; judge 
of his own preigress, he; be;comes a v(try im[)ejrtant 
factor in the schoe)l syste;m. Inde-ed, in one sense', 
he assumes the functie)ns of a supe'rintendeTit. '^Vo 
this there can be; no valid objection; for the super- 
intende;nt, espe-cially in the larger citie.'s, cannot 
come; into close tou(;h with eve-ry class-re)om. Jlejw- 
ever, under this plan the te-ndency will be toward the 
developme-nt of gr(;at ine-qualities in the; diffe^rent 
schools of the same* community; each school repre- 
senting the f)roclivitie;s of its principal, rather than 
those of the city superintendent. 
[141] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

The fourth system differs from the third in this 
only, that the independent tests of the principal are 
supplemented once or twice a year by uniform tests 
prepared by the superintendent. Here the principal 
is not left entirely to his own resources, but, from 
time to time, is himself subjected to a test. The 
advantage of this plan lies in the fact that it is 
capable of bringing to light the comparative prog- 
ress of the different schools, which is not the case 
when the results reported to the superintendent from 
the various schools are based on tests of varying 
degrees of difficulty. The knowledge on the part of 
the principal that his school is to be judged by 
tests other than his own cannot fail to exert an influ- 
ence on the nature of the tests prepared by himself, 
which will be guided by the character of those sub- 
mitted by the superintendent. If the latter call for 
independent thought, the principals must see that 
the teachers will train their pupils to think; other- 
wise their schools will not be likely to make a good 
showing. Even under these conditions some of the 
schools will fail, because the principals themselves 
are not equally competent or equally ambitious ; but 
the tendency will be to stimulate those who are 
ambitious, and who wish to stand well among their 
colleagues. Therefore, the best principals of the 
town will be likely to do better work, and among 
the less competent the number of failures will be 
smaller. This system of examination describes, in a 
general way, the plan in vogue in City I. 

In the foregoing I have attempted to point out, 
first, why some schools succeeded in passing my test 
[ 142] 



Success and failure in arithmetic 

and others failed; and, secondly, what mode of pro- 
cedure, according to the facts, is destined to lead to 
the most favorable results. However, I do not wish 
to convey the impression that I claim to have solved 
the educational problem. I fully believe that my 
data, though comparatively meagre, justify the 
deduction that, other things being equal, the results 
obtained by the teacher will vary with the demand, 
which simply shows a further application of a very 
well-recognized fundamental law. Further investiga- 
tions may prove that I am wrong, and that the 
controlling factor is an altogether different one. 

But taking it for granted, for the sake of argu- 
ment, that my deduction is correct, this does not 
indicate that I have really solved the problem. If 
we are willing to accept the statement that the re- 
sults are controlled by the demand, we are simply 
carried to the threshold of another, and much larger, 
problem. Assuming the organization of a school 
system to be ideal, that is, that the principal is 
broader than his teachers, and that the superintend- 
ent is broader than his principals, then the deduction 
is logical that it is fitting for the demand to be 
fixed by the superintendent. This, however, merely 
leads us to the question: What principles shall guide 
the superintendent in formulating his demands ? He 
must ask neither too much nor too little of his 
teachers. If he asks too much, the consequence will 
be a waste of effort in the attempt to do the im- 
possible. On the other hand, if he asks too little, 
the pupils will not be sufficiently taxed to develop the 
best that is in them. 

[143] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

But how is the superintendent to determine the 
mean? Thus far no higher law has been recognized 
than that of personal opinion ; so that all standards 
now in existence are purely arbitrary in their nature. 
Nevertheless, there is a higher law, and one which 
will have to be brought to bear on the educational 
problem, if permanent progress is looked for. The 
law is this, that the demand must be based on the 
normal mental capacity of the child, that is, on a 
knowledge of what the average child ^ who has been 
well taught is capable of doing in an individual 
branch, at a given period of school-life, when a given 
amount of time has been devoted to that branch. 
This is not a question of opinion, but a question of 
fact, a problem whose solution depends upon ex- 
tended investigations. 

If we look over the pedagogical field to get our 
bearings from the standpoint of the mental capacity 
of the child, we can find as yet no definite landmarks 
to serve as guides in the establishment of standards. 
Under these circumstances, the superintendent's de- 
mands cannot be representative of anything more 
definite than his personal opinion — a condition that 
must necessarily prevail until a more or less substan- 
tial literature on the child's capacity has been de- 
veloped. In the meantime our educators must resort 
to expedients ; and, for the present, the wisest course, 
it seems to me, lies in the adoption of a system of 
examinations as outlined in plan number four. 

^ Recognizing that no two individuals are alike, some educa- 
tors take exception to the term "average child." However, 
there can be no objection if we accept it in a figurative sense, 
taking the class as a unit. 

[ 144] 



SUCCESS AND FAILURE IN ARITHMETIC 

However, the mere inauguration of a fruitful sys- 
tem of examinations does not itself insure success. 
As I have already stated, the nature of the results 
will be determined, for the most part, by the char- 
acter of the tests prepared by the superintendent. 
If the problems do not call for independent thought, 
and if they can be solved without any difficulty should 
the teacher have devoted her entire attention to 
drilling the pupils in the work of her own grade, 
then the tests of the principal will follow this lead, 
and the examinations will be as routine in character 
as those which are made by the teachers themselves, 
in accordance with plan number one. To be of the 
highest value, the superintendent's questions must 
be suggestive and stimulating, both to the principals 
and the teachers. They must aim to take the latter 
out of the groove, and be so formulated that they 
will call for a thorough grasp of the entire subject 
as far as the pupils have advanced, as well as a 
readiness on the part of the latter to comprehend a 
problem that comes within their scope, regardless 
of how it is stated. When I say that the standard 
implied by a test of this nature is not an impossible 
one, and that its attainment is purely a matter of 
training, I am not merely expressing a personal 
opinion, but I am speaking from actual facts — as 
witness, in the table, 81 per cent against 8 in the 
seventh year, and 91 per cent against 11 in the 
eighth. 

A further illustration of the same fact was given 
a few weeks ago when I submitted an apparently 
simple, but rather puzzling, little problem to the 
[ 145 ] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

pupils of the eighth year of a number of schools. 
In one instance, where the pupils had failed on my 
general test, the class average on this little problem 
was 10 per cent only. I asked the teacher how she 
accounted for the failure, and her reply was : "Chil- 
dren don't think." If she had spoken more truly, 
she would have said: "These children don't think," 
or "My pupils have not been trained to think"; for 
in another instance, in the school that stood first on 
my general test, the class average on the same prob- 
lem was as high as 60 per cent. It might be argued 
that, perhaps, in the one school the pupils had pre- 
viously had problems similar to the one I gave, while 
in the other they had not. This is just the point. 
If not, why not? In some schools it is difficult to 
find practical problems that are not in line with 
previous work; and, therefore, almost any practical 
question seems quite familiar to the pupils. But in 
other schools the pupils seem to be able to look in one 
direction only, so that questions from other points of 
view represent to them merely so many Chinese 
puzzles. 

The conclusion that the controlling factor in the 
accomplishment of results is to be found among the 
duties of the superintendent may be open to the 
criticism that I started out with a theory, and that, 
in interpreting my data, I was influenced by the 
desire to prove my theory — a form of criticism to 
which investigators are not infrequently subjected. 
However, to this charge I must enter the plea, "Not 
guilty." That I have had, for some time, a rather 
strong leaning in a certain direction, I shall not deny. 
[146] 



SUCCESS AND FAILURE IN ARITHMETIC 

But my belief was that the variations in the results 
were due, primarily, to differences in the personality 
and qualifications of teachers — a theory which the 
facts compelled me to abandon. And I did not see 
what I now believe to be the controlling factor until 
every element I had mentioned had been critically 
examined and found wanting. 

It is gratifying to me to be able to say that the 
facts were not interpreted in the light of the con- 
clusion, but that the conclusion was formed in the 
light of the facts. Nevertheless, when I recall my 
educational experiences of a decade ago, I am some- 
what surprised that my impressions did not favor, 
from the outset, the theory to which the facts have 
led me. In January, 1892, after spending consid- 
erable time in studying the school systems abroad, 
I entered into an agreement with The Forum to 
visit the schools of our own country, and to prepare 
a series of articles embodying my observations. I 
started out early in January of that year, and 
traveled continuously for over five months, during 
which time I had an opportunity to visit schools in 
session in thirty-six cities, and to consult a large 
iiumber of superintendents, teachjers, and others 
more or less directly interested in education. At the 
end of that period I felt that I was ready to express 
some opinions, and the publication of my series be- 
gan in October, 1892, and did not close until June, 
1893. 

It was not my purpose at the time to study the 
results of instruction, but rather the spirit of the 
schools. I had long believed that elementary educa- 
[147] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

tlon should take into account the normal activities 
and interests of the child ; that the latter should be 
introduced to the beauties of nature and art ; and 
that he should be as free in his schoolroom as or- 
derly development would permit. From the stand- 
point of spirit and breadth of curriculum, I found 
all sorts and conditions of schools. In many lo- 
calities, the sitting-still school, with all its me- 
chanical appurtenances, still flourished ; in some, the 
endeavor to break away from the old-fashioned, 
mechanical grind was in evidence; and in not a few 
instances I found localities where my idle fancies 
had been more than realized. 

The most striking feature of my observations was 
tlie fact that, from the standpoint of spirit, any one 
school of a given locality was, broadly speaking, 
representative of the schools of its locality as a 
whole. When the repression of the child was found 
in the first school that I visited, it was found in 
the other schools as well; and, in the same way, 
when in the first school I found spontaneity, it was 
an indication that I should find freedom in the other 
schools also. This was strong evidence to the effect 
that the spirit of the schools of every locality must 
be controlled by a central authority ; and the ac- 
cumulated data led me to the conclusion that the 
tone of the class-room was representative of the per- 
sonality of the superintendent, provided he had had 
charge of the schools long enough to make his per- 
sonality felt. And this conclusion, I believe, has 
stood the test of time. The term superintendent is 
[148] 



SUCCESS AND FAILURE IN ARITHMETIC 

here used in the larger sense, which includes the 
members of his staff. 

From the deduction stated the inference is nat- 
ural: "If the superintendent is responsible for the 
spirit of the schools, why is he not also responsible 
for the results?" If the superintendent wishes to 
develop a good school spirit, it is necessary for him 
to work for spirit. If he is desirous of accomplish- 
ing results of a high order, it is necessary for him 
to work for results. 

In view of what I have said, the aim of super- 
vision is clearly a double one. In the first place, 
the superintendent must see that a wholesome spirit 
is developed in the schools ; and, secondly, it is also 
his duty to see that due attention is paid to results. 
This again gives rise to an important question: Is 
it possible to keep the results in view without at the 
same time crushing the spirit? Or, conversely. Is 
it possible to develop a delightful class-room atmos- 
phere without at the same time destroying the 
results ? 

Judging by my own impressions, acquired by a 
twofold study of the question, spirit and results 
are in no way incompatible. The criticism aimed 
at the modern school spirit, that it means a milk- 
and-water system, a weak sentimentality rather than 
mental discipline of a wholesome kind, does, perhaps, 
apply to the schools of those localities where the 
mere utterance of the word "results" is looked upon 
as sacrilegious — schools that are in a transitional 
stage, just emerging from an antiquated system, 
[ 149 ] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

and not yet accustomed to their new surroundings. 
But the criticism does not apply to localities where 
a good spirit has already become an established fact, 
and additional aims can be held in view without los- 
ing sight of the fundamental proposition. In itself, 
a good school spirit does not indicate weakness any 
more than a poor spirit is an indication of strength. 
In some of the delightful schools, it is true, the 
results are by no means praiseworthy; but, on the 
other hand, the results are frequently of a very 
inferior order in typical schools of the antiquated 
kind. 

There is, indeed, no logical reason why results 
may not be kept in view without in any way neg- 
lecting the spirit; for "subjects" are taught in the 
modern as well as in the antiquated schools, and the 
time devoted to the formal studies is, in most in- 
stances, ample to lead to satisfactory results. If 
the modern idea should stand for the abandonment 
of the three R's, it might be deemed unworthy ; but it 
does nothing of the kind. The matter simply resolves 
itself into a question like this: "All other things 
being equal, will forty-five minutes a day devoted 
to arithmetic in the schools in which the pupils are 
active and responsive accomplish as much as forty- 
five minutes devoted to arithmetic in the schools 
where the pupils are repressed and passive?" The 
facts compel us to answer this question in the affirm- 
ative. Therefore, there is no reason to doubt that 
a good school spirit and satisfactory results may 
without difficulty go hand in hand. 

[150] 



IX 



CONCLUDED 



In Chapter VII, I presented the results of a test 
in arithmetic. The test had been submitted to the 
pupils of the fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth 
year classes in eighteen school buildings, represent- 
ing seven cities, and the total number of children 
examined was not far from six thousand. While 
the figures obtained were surprising in many ways, 
they were particularly so in these two points: (1) 
That the results obtained in the different schools 
varied to a remarkable extent, the averages per 
school ranging from 25 to 80 per cent; and (2) 
that when the schools were listed in the order of 
merit, those of an individual locality were, with a 
single exception, so close together that the results 
obtained in a given school were, to a large extent, 
representative of all the schools examined in that 
locality. In other words, when the results were 
good in one building they were good in other build- 
ings examined in the same locality; and the same 
was true where they were fair or poor. 

In addition to the study of results, I entered into 
a detailed inquiry concerning the conditions under 
'April-June, 1903. 
[151] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

which the results had been obtained, in the hope of 
finding the cause or causes of success or of failure. 
Among the points considered were the age and home 
environment of the pupils, the size of each class, 
the methods of instruction, the qualifications of the 
teachers, natural and acquired, the time devoted to 
arithmetic, and the character of the supervision. A 
study of the results from these various points of 
view led me to the conclusion stated in Chapter VIII, 
namely, that the controlling element in the achieve- 
ment of success lay in a single phase of supervision, 
that is, in the training afforded to the teacher 
through systematically testing the progress of her 
pupils by means of examinations consisting of prob- 
lems that cannot be solved unless the children thor- 
oughly understand the principles of arithmetic — 
from the beginning of the subject up to the time the 
examination is given — and are possessed of the 
power of applying them. 

After the appearance of my second article on 
arithmetic (Chapter VIII), two important points 
were raised in criticism of my deductions ; and, for 
the sake of throwing light on the subject from ad- 
ditional points of view, I shall devote the present 
chapter to answering them. They are: 

1. That in placing the responsibility for the re- 
sults primarily upon the supervision, I had under- 
estimated the value of the personality of the teacher ; 
and 

2. That a single test will not suffice to bring out 
the comparative strength of the pupils; that the 
ideals in arithmetic differ in different communities; 

[152] 



TALENT VS. TRAINING IN TEACHING 

and that if the test had been of a different character, 
the order of merit might have been reversed. 

In regard to the first point, I desire to impress 
not only the fact that my conclusion was based upon 
the results, but also that it does not in any way 
conflict with generally accepted pedagogical views. 
Indeed, all advanced educational legislation is based 
upon the belief that pedagogical talent, like any 
other talent, is subject to development through 
training. In evidence of this we find not only that 
institutions for the training of teachers are grow- 
ing more and more in favor, but that our elementary 
school systems are planned upon the idea of the 
need of continuous training. Hence, our supervis- 
ing principals, special supervisors, and superin- 
tendents of schools. At the same time, it cannot 
be doubted that natural endowment is of inestimable 
value in teaching, as in every other field; so that 
the question at issue really resolves itself into that 
of the relative value of talent and training. That 
this question may be studied from the standpoint of 
statistics, I have, in Table I (p. 156), arranged the 
figures in a way that will show the influence of the 
personality of the teacher as compared with that of 
training; but before entering into the discussion of 
that table, I shall cite a few instances to illustrate 
that even from a theoretical standpoint a deficiency 
in talent can be overcome by training. 

Let us first imagine two individuals, one of whom 

is a pedagogical genius, while the other is absolutely 

devoid of the pedagogical instinct. In this case, 

there is little doubt that the former would always 

[153] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

be the better teacher, even if she should have no 
training whatever, and the hitter should have the 
benefit of the most thorough training that the world 
can afford. 

Next, let us imagine two individuals one of whom 
is not really a genius, but whose pedagogical talent 
is considerable, represented, say, by 75 per cent, 
while the other is not altogether pedagogically weak, 
but possesses native ability to the extent of 25 per 
cent. Under these circumstances, it is not at all 
impossible to conceive of conditions under which the 
efficiency of the latter could rise to the level of that 
of the former. If both these individuals should 
pass through the same course of training before re- 
ceiving their licenses to teach, and then should se- 
cure positions in the same school building, i.e.y under 
the same principal and superintendent, it is quite 
rational to assume that their relative native effi- 
ciency would tell, and that the work of the one 
would always be far superior to that of the other. 
But if, after receiving their licenses, the young lady 
with considerable talent should obtain a position in 
a school where the principal and the superintendent 
permitted her to drift, while the other should enter 
a system where the superintendent was vigilant, and 
a building whose principal was not only a thoughtful 
and tireless worker, but in addition had a genius 
for developing the best that was in his teachers, is 
it not conceivable that, in time, the teacher who had 
been permitted to drift would accomplish less than 
her native talent would warrant, showing an effi- 
ciency of not more than 50 per cent, while the 
[ 154] 



TALENT VS. TRAINING IN TEACHING 

teacher who had been put on her mettle would so 
have developed her native ability that her efficiency 
would have risen to 50 per cent? 

And, thirdly, let us imagine two teachers whose 
native efficiencies were 60 and 40 — and these are 
really representative of the average persons who 
enter the profession — is it not conceivable that, un- 
der the conditions just outlined, the efficiency of the 
former, who had no specially marked bent for teach- 
ing, would fall to 30, while that of the other, who 
was not particularly weak at the outset, would rise 
to 70, so that at the end of a given period the odds 
would be strongly in favor of the teacher who had 
started out in life with less in her favor? 

That, in this instance, theory is duly borne out 
by the facts is very strikingly indicated in Table I, 
which shows, side by side, the influence of the 
teacher's personality as compared with that of the 
system of schools in which she is employed. The 
figures represent, first, the results obtained in every 
class-room of the four schools examined in City I, 
where the test of the character described is used by 
both the superintendent and the principal ; secondly, 
those obtained in the three schools of City VI, where 
no tests are made by superintendent or principal ; 
and, thirdly, those secured in the three schools of 
City VII, where tests are made by the superintend- 
ent, but the problems are limited to the grade work 
of the class. 

That the personality of the teacher is not the 
controlling element in the achievement of success is, 
in my opinion, amply proved by the fact that in 
[155] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

Cities VI and VII the results, with few exceptions, 
fell below a reasonable standard in every class- 

Table I 



4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


o 

S3.b 


l> 
1? 
O 

:::: 

4i!6 
86.8 

28!i 


> 
'6 

59;3 

47!4 
41.1 


u 

85.6 
85.3 
84.9 
83.5 

79!6 
77.8 
75.0 
74.6 
71.1 
66.8 

.... 


> 
O 

5516 

45!3 
38.1 


a 
> 
1? 
5 

8112 

55!i 
52!4 
49!6 

37!5 


'6 

88.8 

si 5 


> 



i 
^ 






> 
'6 


> 
'6 


e 

86.6 
86!9 

72.' 7 

66!5 
61.0 


> 

'6 



.... 
35.2 

26!9 
23.3 




i?'4 


79^4 

72:4 
72.2 
71.1 

eiii 












•••' 


63.3 
62.7 

56*8 


68!3 




7i;7 

65.1 
62.0 

58 !3 

54!6 

48:8 
41.7 


33.5 

30.5 

id.5 


17.3 

10.0 
8.9 


.... 
.... 


56.4 
51.8 


:::: 


46!i 
46.0 

3415 


46*2 
34.0 

27;6 
27.3 
26.5 


36!6 

21 !6 
20.4 

isig 
11.3 



room examined, while in City I, with few exceptions, 
they rose above that standard. However, the fig- 
ures do not show that nothing is to be credited 
to the personality of the teacher ; for while in Cities 
VI and VII the results, on the whole, were low, they 
were not equally low; and, on the other hand, 
[156] 



TALENT VS. TRAINING IN TEACHING 

although, in general, the results in City I were high, 
they were not equally high. That is to say, differ- 
ences in percentages allowing for differences in the 
personality of the teachers were well marked in all 
these cities, but the results were on a different plane. 
The scope representing the teacher's personality is 
represented by the differences in the individual col- 
umns, i.e., by the percentages obtained in the dif- 
ferent class-rooms of the same grade in any one 
locality, while the influence of the school-system as 
a whole is seen when the figures of one column are 
compared with those of another. 

Taking the individual columns of grade 4, we 
find that in City I the class averages run from 51.8 
to 83, showing an extreme variation of 31.2; in 
City VI, they vary from 28.1 to 41.6; and in City 
VII, from 41.1 to 59.3. If we now compare the 
figures of one column with those of another, we can 
see the influence of the system; and by drawing a 
line across the three columns of grade 4 at 50, we 
find that all the classes examined in City I are 
above it, while, with a single exception, all those of 
Cities VI and VII are below. 

In the 5th grade, barring a single instance, the 
poorest grade average of City I is 11.8 per cent 
higher than the best of Cities VI and VII, and 29.3 
higher than the poorest. In the 6th grade, again 
leaving out an exceptional instance, the poorest 
average in City I is 21 per cent higher than the best 
of Cities VI and VII, and 40.6 per cent higher than 
the poorest. In the 7th grade there is no exception, 
the lowest average in City I being 8.2 per cent better 
[157] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

than the highest in the other cities, and 32.8 per 
cent better than the lowest. And in the 8th grade 
of City I, the lowest average is 25.8 per cent better 
than the highest in the other cities, and 49.7 per 
cent better than the lowest. 

Looking at the matter from another point of view, 
we find that in 30 class-rooms out of the 33 exam- 
ined in Cities VI and VII, the highest marks were 
below the poorest obtained in the 38 class-rooms 
examined in City I.^ But the influence of the sys- 
tem is brought out most strikingly when the lowest 
averages of Cities VI and VII are compared with the 
lowest of City I, as this shows most directly the gen- 
eral uplift given by something in the latter's system, 
which I believe to be the stimulating test. 

It may be believed that some of the questions were 
too difficult for grades 4, 6, and 7. If so, we may 
leave these grades out of consideration, and confine 
our attention to the 5th and the 8th, where the 
problems should not have been beyond the pupils. 
But this does not change in any way the compara- 
tive standing of the schools represented. 

In spite of the figures, it is difficult to say just 
how many counts out of 100 should be attributed 
to the personality of the teacher and how many 
counts to the system. The diflPerences are, perhaps, 
as marked in the columns which allow for the one 
as they are in the comparisons representing the 
other. But the variations in the individual columns 

* To avoid needless overcrowding of the column, two class- 
rooms, averaging 77.1 and 71 respectively, were omitted from 
City I, grade 5. 

[158] 



TALENT VS. TRAINING IN TEACHING 

do not represent the influence of the teacher's per- 
sonality alone. Here allowance must be made for 
another important factor, namely, the differences in 
the ability of the classes, which are sometimes very 
marked. 

But the potency of the system is clearly indicated 
by the fact that under its influence the poorest 
teachers will be able to make some kind of a show- 
ing with the poorest of classes. Taking City I, 
we find that while in the 4th grade three of the 
classes fell below 60, not one of them fell below 
50 ; and that while two classes in the 7th grade fell 
below 50, not one of them fell below 40, although 
the 7th year test proved to have been exceptionally 
severe. In the 5th and the 8th grades, where the 
suitability of the questions can scarcely be doubted, 
the lowest averages in City I were 66.8 and 61, re- 
spectively, against 37.5 and 11.3. Taken all in all, 
I do not think I exaggerate when I say that the 
system is the equivalent of 25 counts. That is to 
say, speaking from my own deductions, I am inclined 
to believe that if Cities VI and VII should introduce 
a system of testing similar to that employed in City 
I, and its introduction should be accompanied by a 
specific demand upon the principals and teachers, 
it would not be very long before a test equally diffi- 
cult as my own would result in school averages of 
60 to 65 per cent, in place of 35 to 40 per cent, as 
was the case when these schools were examined a 
year ago. 

From the foregoing analysis, I believe we are 
justified in concluding that the question of the rela- 
[159] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

tive value of talon t and training lias a theoretical 
and a practical side. From a theoretical point of 
view, I am willing to concede in favor of personality 
even more than the figures show, and to go so far 
as to say that one who is exceptionally endowed 
by nature is able to rise above her surroundings, 
and can do as well if left to her own resources as 
under the closest of supervision. The figures do 
not do justice to this teacher, because she is sim{)ly 
a link in a chain, and the puj)ils may enter her class- 
room so f)ooily j)re{)ared that it will recjuire a her- 
culean eflort even on her part to raise them merely 
to a moderate degree of proficiency. 

From a practical j)()int of view, however, the situ- 
ation seems to be controlled by the training afforded 
by that form of supervision which tends to stimulate 
the teacher to do her l)est, because the vast ma- 
/jority of the teachers are persons of moderate abil- 
ity, who are in need of a stimulus from an outside 
source if they are to do the best work of which they 
are capal)h'. And, taking a conmiunity as a whole, 
the suf)[)()rt aH'orded by such a stimulus as an ideal 
system of testing — in which the superintendent and 
the principal are factors of equal importance — seems 
to be sufficient to raise considerably the efficiency 
of the entire corps. The teachers' meeting is valu- 
able, because It gives the teacher ideas; but the 
meeting must be supplemented by the test, in order 
that the superintendent may be assured that the 
Ideas accjulred at the meetings are afterward applied 
in practice. 

1 desire to add here that in the present stage of 
[160] 



TALENT VS. TRAINING IN TEACHING 

our pedagogical knowledge, when we are guided alto- 
gether by theory, poor results in a given locality 
do not in any way speak against the efficiency of 
the superintendent. Wide-awake superintendents 
are in the habit of following the trend of advancing 
pedagogical thought; and if that trend is in the 
wrong direction, the superintendent is not respon- 
sible. The tendency for some years past has been 
for example, to oppose examinations of every form; 
and, in view of this circumstance, the superintendent 
has been fully justified in abandoning them. If, 
however, further investigations should substantiate 
my contention, and facts should prove the exami- 
nation to be a sine qua non, then the tests will prob- 
ably be the most speedily reintroduced by the very 
men who were most ready to set them aside. It is 
in questions of this kind, where strong forces are 
arrayed on both sides, that the value of educational 
research is most clearly apparent; for some of the 
most practical points of school administration upon 
which agreement cannot be reached through opin- 
ions may be decided without difficulty by statistics. 

Let us now direct our attention to the second 
point, and endeavor to learn whether the results 
obtained by my test are representative of the com- 
parative strength of the schools examined, or 
whether a test of a different nature, based upon 
different ideals, might have shown strength where 
weakness was manifested, and vice versa. 

In formulating my problems, I did not lose sight 
of the fact that the courses in arithmetic vary in 
different communities ; and I therefore endeavored 
[161] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

to secure questions that would call for a knowledge 
of arithmetic such as would naturally come within 
the scope of all schools, regardless of what their 
ideals might be. In spite of my precautions, it is 
possible that some of the problems were beyond the 
scope of certain schools. If so, the matter can be 
easily remedied by eliminating them and drawing 
our conclusions from the others. But just as the 
exclusion of certain grades in their entirety would 
fail to alter the relative positions of the schools, so 
the exclusion of certain selected problems would not 
alter their relative positions. 

In order that the comparisons may be made by 
the reader from a very broad point of view, I shall 
place before him, first, the results that were ob- 
tained on each example in the five schools that passed 
the test satisfactorily and those obtained in the 
lowest six. And, secondly, I shall enter into the 
analysis of a sufficient number of the problems to 
show wherein the examination was characteristic 
and in what manner the pupils went astray in their 
work. The classification of the errors will show 
that, at least in the majority of instances, the mis- 
takes in the lower grades were due to lack of judg- 
ment in the application of elementary principles, 
while in the upper grades they were due, for the 
most part, to a lack of knowledge of the principles 
involved. The errors made by the pupils in the 
stronger schools were exactly the same in character 
as those made in the weaker ones, the diflference 
being simply in the number of pupils who failed. 

The results obtained on the individual problems 
[ 162] 



TALENT VS. TRAINING IN TEACHING 



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[163] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

in the schools mentioned will be found in Tables 
2 to 5. Two percentages are given upon each 
example. The first represents the number of cor- 
rect answers, while the second represents the prob- 
lems correctly performed in principle, but wherein 
mechanical errors led to wrong results. For the 
sake of clearness, the problems have been arranged 
in the order of difficulty as manifested by the test, 
not that in which they were presented to the pupils. 
For facility of reference, each problem is indicated 
in the tables by a suggestive word or two. The 
questions were printed in their original order at the 
close of Chapter VII. 

Now, if the question of ideals should play a part 
in the comparative standing of the schools, the 
comparative degree of difficulty of the various prob- 
lems should be found to vary in different localities 
according to the special lines along which they had 
been working. It ought to be found that while, on 
the whole, some of the schools fell far behind the 
others, they nevertheless manifested superiority in 
certain directions, and would have outranked the 
others on a test based more generally upon those 
lines. On looking over the tables, however, such a 
condition is in no wise manifested. On the con- 
trary, the tables speak forcibly against such an 
assumption, and in two ways : First, they show that 
the schools that passed the test satisfactorily out- 
ranked the others on every problem, and in many 
instances to a very large degree. And, secondly, 
the figures are still more striking in that they show 
that, broadly speaking, the comparative degree of 
[164] 



TALENT VS. TRAINING IN TEACHING 



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[165] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 





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difficulty of the va- 
rious examples was 
found to be the same 
in every locality; in- 
dicating that work 
along special lines, if 
such there was, did 
not tell in a test of 
judgment. The de- 
cline in the percent- 
ages from the firsti 
problem to the eighth 
is especially marked 
in the upper two 
lines ; the occasional 
elevations or depres- 
sions following no gen- 
eral rule. It is most 
clearly marked in the 
first line of Table 5, 
where the descent re- 
sembles a veritable 
avalanche. 

The tables are in- 
structive from another 
standpoint, namely, as 
indicating the child's 
capacity for arithme- 
tic at different periods 
of school life, thus 
aiding in the develop- 
ment of standards. In 



[166] 



TALENT VS. TRAINING IN TEACHING 

regard to the mental powers of children, teachers are 
altogether too apt to generalize upon the basis of 
what their own pupils are able to do ; and when a 
teacher is not successful, she is apt to think but little 
of children's minds. Lines 3 and 4 of the tables in- 
dicated show that children can reason, and that 
their reasoning powers, as regards arithmetic, are 
capable of development to a remarkable degree 
through training. 

As to the variety of errors, these may be most 
conveniently studied under certain general classifi- 
cations. Although the number of groups into which 
they could be divided is almost without limit, never- 
theless, if we disregard the mechanical blunders and 
the problems in which the pupils failed in part only, 
an idea of the nature of the errors may be obtained 
for general purposes by studying them in four gen- 
eral classes: 

1. Errors due to a complete absence of thought. 

2. Errors in problems correctly performed in prin- 
ciple, but due to lack of reasoning in the processes. 

3. Errors due to misinterpretation of a problem. 

4. Errors due to lack of knowledge of arithmetical 
principles. 

Of the total number of errors made, the vast ma- 
jority appear to have been due to a complete ab- 
sence of thought. Whether in such instances the 
children did not read the problems carefully, or 
whether they read them but did not understand 
them, I am unable to say. What they did was sim- 
ply to work with the figures, stated or implied, add- 
ing, subtracting, multiplying, or dividing at random. 
[167] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

The result of these combinations was called the 
answer, and the pupils did not stop to consider 
whether such answers bore any relation whatever to 
the question. For instance, problem 1, grade 4, 
reads : 

If there were 4,839 class-rooms in New York City, and 47 
children in each class-room, how many children would there 
be in the New York schools? 

The problem did not appear to present much 
difficulty to the children in any of the schools, and 
the total number of errors was comparatively small. 
Nevertheless, nearly 13 per cent of the pupils failed, 
and of these all but a few divided, giving as their 
answer 102fy children. It may be reasonably 
argued that children do funny things; but this does 
not explain why the number of children who do 
funny things is so much larger in some schools than 
in others. 

In problem 2, grade 4, three numbers are stated, 
giving greater scope for variety. The method is, 
of course, 1,743 + 5,482 = 7,225. 10,000 - 7,225 = 
2,775. The varieties presented by the pupils were: 

1. 1,743 + 5,482 + 10,000 = 17,225. 

2. 5,482 - 1,743 = 3,739. 10,000 - 3,739 = 
6,261. 

3. 1,743 + 5,482 = 7,225. 7,225 X 10,000 = 
72,250,000. 

4. 1,743 - 5,482, etc. 

The endeavor to subtract a large number from a 
small one is quite common, and the process in this 
instance was performed in four ways : ( 1 ) By bor- 
[168] 



TALENT VS. TRAINING IN TEACHING 

rowing; (2) by disregarding the thousands; (3) by 
bringing down the last figure of the upper line ; and 
(4) by bringing down the last figure of the lower 
line : 

1,743 1,743 1,743 1,743 

5,482 5,482 5,482 5,482 



6,261 2,61 1,261 5,261 

On looking over the tables, we find that no par- 
ticular difficulty was experienced in three of the 
cities with the first five examples of the 4th grade 
test; so that the errors may be attributed in some 
measure to carelessness on the part of pupils who 
could have done better if they had tried. However, 
when we direct attention to the results obtained 
on the remaining three, it becomes apparent that 
difficulties were here presented which did not occur 
in the others, and that these difficulties were suffi- 
ciently great actually to place the problems beyond 
the grasp of many of the stronger pupils. On the 
first five problems the total number of failures was 
22 per cent only. But on the sixth example 40 per 
cent failed, on the seventh, 45 per cent, and on the 
eighth, nearly 70 per cent. 

As the number of failures on the eighth example 
was large in all the schools represented in the table, 
the conclusion is justified that it was too difficult 
for the grade. Examples 1-5 having proved them- 
selves too easy for a test of power, and example 8 
too difficult, the actual test was confined to problems 
6 and 7. Table 2 shows that the schools represented 
[169] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

in the lower two lines did somewhat better than the 
others on the easiest problems, considerably better 
on the really difficult one, and much better also on 
the problems that proved to be the true test of their 
power. Surely, Cities VI and VII must have been 
working along the lines of one of these three groups 
of problems, but they were outranked by the others 
on all. Under these circumstances, it is difficult to 
imagine a fourth year test that would reverse the 
position of the schools, unless it might be purely 
upon abstract work. But this point is also con- 
sidered in the tables, where it is shown that Cities 
VI and VII made not only more errors in reasoning 
than the others, but also a larger percentage of 
mechanical errors. 

When we consider the nature of problems 6 and 
7, it is difficult for the mature mind to see why 
so many of the pupils should have failed upon them 
not only in the fourth year, but even in the sixth, 
i.e.y among those who had nearly completed their 
arithmetic. It will be noticed that problems 6, 7, 
and 8 were repeated in the test for grades 5 and 6. 
The questions were: 

6. What will 24 quarts of cream cost at $1.20 a gallon? 

7. If a boy pays $2.83 for 100 papers, and sells them at 4 
cents apiece, how much money does he make? 

As to the character of the errors in these problems, 
the same is true as of the others, namely, that they 
were thoughtless combinations of the numbers stated. 
In the sixth, most of the pupils who failed simply 
multiplied or divided $1.20 by 24, disregarding the 
[170] 



TALENT VS. TRAINING IN TEACHING 

4 entirely; and of those who used it, many mul- 
tiplied 24 by 4, thus giving 96 gallons as the 
equivalent of 24 quarts. The typical errors were: 
$1.20 X 24 = $28.80; $1.20 -^ 24 = $5 ; 24 X 4 X 
1.20 = $115.20; and 24 ^ 1.20 = .20. 

The difficulty seemed to lie in the fact that the 
question contained two distinct terms, "quarts" and 
"gallons," and that a conversion from one into the 
other was required before proceeding. If the ques- 
tion had been stated in two parts — (1) How many 
gallons are 24 quarts.? and (2) If one gallon of 
cream costs $1.20, how much will 6 gallons cost.? — 
there is no doubt that most of the children would 
have performed the example correctly. 

In the seventh example the variations in the an- 
swers were endless. In this problem, also, two dis- 
tinct terms are stated, a "hundred" and "apiece," 
and it is necessary to convert before proceeding. 
Thus, again, the question would, undoubtedly, have 
been very well handled if it had been presented in 
two parts: (1) If a boy sells papers at 4 cents 
apiece, how much will he get for 100? and (2) If a 
boy buys 100 papers for $2.83 and sells them for $4, 
how much money does he make.? 

The typical errors in this problem were two in 
number : 

$2.83 X 4 = $11.32; and $2.83 -^ 4 = .70|. 

Among the others the following are interesting: 
2.83 + 4 = 2.87; 2.83-4 = 2.79; 2.83X4 = 11.32- 
100 = .11; 100X4 = 4.00; 2.83-4.00 = .83 ; 2.83 
X 4 = 11.32 -^ 4 = 2.83. Here the pupil added: 
*'The boy did not make anjrthing. " 
[171] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

In a sixth year class, where the pupils had evi- 
dently had a thorough drill in decimals, the follow- 
ing remarkable process was found in two instances: 
2.83 -^ 100 = .283 X. 04 = .01132. 2.830000 - 
.01132 = 2.828886 gain. 

Other methods in the same class were: 
283X100 = 28,300 + 400 = 828,700 gain. 
283 X 100 = 283.00-4.00 = $279.00. 
283-^4 = 70.75. 
2.83X4 = 11.32- 1.00 = . 32. 
100X4 = 4.00^2.83=1.17 + 100 = 2.17. 

It would be interesting to know what the mathe- 
matical ideals in this class really are. 

The second class of errors, those occurring in 
problems worked upon correct principles and due 
to lack of judgment in performing the various steps, 
are particularly frequent in problems involving deci- 
mals. The errors are here made in the placing 
of the decimal point, and are due to the fact that, 
in pointing off, the pupils do not exercise any judg- 
ment, but simply trust to luck or their knowledge 
of the rule. They do not seem to recognize that a 
blunder in placing the decimal point is liable to 
make the answer ridiculous, it matters not how care- 
fully the problem may have been performed in every 
other way. 

The first problem in which considerable scope is 
given for errors of this nature is example 7, grade 
5. The correct answer is $1,263; but, by reason 
of the displacement of the decimal point, many of 
the pupils obtained $12.63 for the answer. Owing 
[172] 



TALENT VS. TRAINING IN TEACHING 

to the nature of the problem, this answer is not on 
its face ridiculous. It is, however, based on a suc- 
cession of ridiculous blunders, to wit: 900 barrels 
of flour at $9 a barrel = $81.00, etc. In the fifth 
year this error is pardonable, but in the sixth, 
where the problem is repeated, it should he rare. 

While in this particular problem the placing of 
the decimal point in the wrong position did not 
produce an absurd answer, the reverse is true of 
problem 6, grade 6. The question is one in division 
of decimals, and the answer is this : To obtain 3,896 
pounds of salt from salt water containing 8 per 
cent of salt, it is necessary to evaporate 48,700 
pounds of the salt water. Those who saw that it 
was a problem in division of decimals obtained the 
figures 48,700 without any difficulty; but the plac- 
ing of the decimal point where it did not belong 
made the answer absolutely ridiculous. The an- 
swers varied from 48,700 pounds to 4.87 pounds. 
The statement that it is possible to obtain 3,896 
pounds of salt from 487 pounds of salt water was 
made by a large number of pupils, even in the 7th 
and 8th grades, where the example was repeated, 
and not a few said that that amount of salt could 
be obtained from 4.87 pounds of water. 

The ridiculous answers to this problem so late in 
school life illustrate a weakness in the teaching of 
arithmetic which seems to be responsible for a large 
number of blunders in all the grades, namely, the 
failure to train pupils to .see that a problem in 
arithmetic is a question which calls for a reasonable 
answer. If. the pupils were everywhere trained to 
[ 173 ] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

scrutinize their answers in the light of the ques- 
tions, it is probable that many errors of the first 
class would also be avoided, and that answers stat- 
ing that the number of children in the New York 
schools is 102|^y, and similar absurdities, would be 
much less frequent than now. 

For errors of the second class many teachers are 
to a certain extent directly responsible, because they 
believe that a child should receive some credit for 
a problem if he shows a knowledge of the principles 
involved. This is, in my opinion, justifiable if a 
wrong answer should be due to a mechanical error, 
such as any one is liable to make, in addition, sub- 
traction, multiplication, or division. But I believe 
that it is an injustice to the child to give him any 
credit for a problem when, in the light of the ques- 
tion, the answer is absurd. 

An interesting phase in the study of errors is 
found in the problems that are misinterpreted. Er- 
rors of this nature very frequently occur in problems 
in which fractions are involved. For example : Prob- 
lem 8, grade 5, reads as follows : 

Frank had $3.08. He spent 1,4 of it for a cap, l^ of it for 
a ball, and with the remainder bought a book. How much 
did the book cost? 

Here many of the pupils looked upon J and j as 
abstract fractions, not as parts of $3.08, and worked 
the problem as f ol lows : i + y = ii- 308 -^ = 307f|-, 
cost of the book, 

Again, problem 8, grade 6, repeated in grades 
7 and 8, reads thus : 

[174] 



TALENT VS. TRAINING IN TEACHING 

A gentleman gave away i/i of the books in his library, lent 
Yq of the remainder, and sold y^ of what was left. He then 
had 420 books remaining. How many had he at first? 

This problem was treated in many instances in the 
same way as the one just cited; the fractions being 
looked upon as purely abstract. The following is 
an illustration : i + i + i = iU- 420 + ^^^ = 420^^ 
books at first. But in this problem a class of errors 
appeared which I was astonished to find among pupils 
who had long since completed fractions. It is this, 
that while, in nearly all instances, the pupils under- 
stood the manipulation of fractions, many had no idea 
of their value. Nearly all were apparently able to 
add y, ^, and -g-, and get the sum ^TS"- -^^^ ^^ adding 
this fraction to 420, a considerable variety in method 
was found. Some took the numerator as a whole 
number, thus: 420+107 = 527 books; others so took 
the denominator: 420 + 210 = 630 books. And some 
added the denominator to the numerator: 210 + 107 = 
317. 420 + 317 = 737 books. 

The very low percentages obtained in the seventh 
and eighth grades of most of the schools examined 
were due in large part to errors of the fourth class, 
namely, those arising from a lack of knowledge of 
the principles involved in the problems. This means 
nothing more or less than a want of thoroughness 
in the teaching of the higher grade arithmetic. In 
some instances, it is true, the pupils did not have 
the needed insight to see what the problems called 
for ; but in others they did not know how to proceed 
when they knew what steps were required. 

Let us take, for example, problem 4, grade 7: 
[175] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

If coffee sold at 33 cents a pound gives a profit of 10 per 
cent, what per cent of profit would there be if it were sold at 
36 cents a pound? 

This problem involves the application of two dis- 
tinct principles in percentage. The first step lies, 
of course, in finding the cost, and the second in 
finding what per cent of 30 is 6, the intermediate 
step being disregarded. The average obtained on 
this problem in City VII being only 12.1 per cent, 
it might be supposed that the principles involved 
were too difficult for seventh-year pupils to com- 
prehend; but this idea is proved to be erroneous 
by the fact that in City III, School 1, the average 
was as high as 96.6. 

On looking over the work done upon this example 
in one of the class-rooms of City VII — a seventh- 
year class, second half — it was impossible for me to 
tell what impression the question actually made 
upon the children. Among the first ten pupils, tak- 
ing the papers as they came to hand, one only did 
the first step correctly, and found the cost. The 
work of some of the others was absolutely mean- 
ingless, as the following illustrations will show: 

36 -^ 33 = lOff^— three cases. 

36 -100 = .36 gain. 

.1000-^36 = 27^ profit. 

100-36 = 74. 100-33 = 67. 74-67 = . 110 cost, 
etc. 

It might be argued that the principles of per- 
centage involved are not taught in the seventh 
grade of all schools, and that the problems would 
have been more generally suitable for the eighth 
[176] 



TALENT VS. TRAINING IN TEACHING 

grade. But this criticism does not help out City 
VII, because the pupils in the eighth grade of that 
city made no better showing than those in the sev- 
enth on problems based upon similar principles. 
Problem 6, grade 8, reads: 

Sold steel at $27.60 a ton, with a profit of 15 per cent, and 
a total profit of $184.50. What quantity was sold? 

On this example the average of City VII was 5.1 
per cent only, against an average of 88.5 per cent, 
obtained in City III, School 1. 

Among the first ten pupils selected at random, in 
an eighth-year class, not one understood that it 
was necessary, in the first place, to find the cost of 
a ton of steel. Four computed the profit by taking 
15 per cent of the selling price; three found the 
number of tons sold by dividing the selling price 
per ton by .15; two simply made absurd combina- 
tions ; and the tenth did not attempt to do the 
problem. 

Having found so much difficulty with the sixth 
problem, it is not surprising that they failed on the 
seventh. In that problem, as in the other, not one 
of the same ten pupils attempted to get at the cost. 
The profit was given as 20 per cent of the selling 
price; the loss as 10 per cent of the selling price; 
and their difference represented the answer. 

The data having been presented, it may not be 
inopportune to inquire, in closing, whether our store 
of positive knowledge has been in any way enriched 
by the test. Upon this point opinions differ. A 
certain number of educators claim that positive 
[177] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

knowledge docs not come within the scope of peda-i 
gogy, and from their standpoint all tests must neces- 
sarily be fruitless. On the opposite side, a number 
of school men may be found who are not only in 
accord with the method, but believe that at least 
some of my deductions are conclusive. And, thirdly, 
there are members of the profession who are heartily 
in sympathy with the method, but think that more 
extended investigations are needed before any posi- 
tive deductions are warranted. While I believe that 
these people are not altogether right, I also appre- 
ciate that they are not entirely wrong. Many of 
the things I have said or implied may be justly put 
down as "not proven." But, on the other hand, 
some of my data point to conclusions so positive 
that further investigation can neither strengthen 
nor weaken them. Of these, I shall here mention 
one only, namely : By reason of the high percentages 
obtained in certain schools, laboring under ordinary 
conditions, we must accept as a fact that nearly 
all children can be trained to solve any ordinary 
problem in arithmetic, based upon principles they 
have studied. Consequently, if the normal child is 
not reasonably proficient in that branch, as far as 
he has advanced in it, the fault is not his. 

Naturally, my explanations as to why some 
schools succeed and others fail represent merely my 
personal interpretation of the facts and figures. 
Others may interpret these differently, and further 
investigations may upset my explanations. Rome 
was not built in a day. But as long as it has been 
positively demonstrated that the child's capacity 
[178] 



TALENT VS. TRAINING IN TEACHING 

for arithmetic is considerable, all principals and su- 
perintendents should deem it their duty to take steps 
to learn whether the pupils in their charge are skille(l 
in arithmetic to the extent of their normal capacity, 
and, if not, to try to discover the reason therefor. 



[179] 



THE RESULTS OF A TEST IN LANGUAGE ^ 

The test in language on which this article is based 
was made in April and May, 1903. The examination 
was undertaken in twenty- two school buildings, rep- 
resenting nine cities, and the total number of chil- 
dren examined was over 8,300. As in arithmetic, 
so in language, the results have varied enormously, 
with this difference only, that in language the per- 
centages have run considerably lower. The exam- 
ination was again given to the pupils of the fourth, 
fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth school years, being, 
in this instance, however, the same for all the grades. 
The test consisted merely of the reproduction of a 
story read to the pupils by the teachers.^ As the 
work was sprung upon the children without any 
previous preparation, and the first draft only was 
accepted, the test was naturally a very severe one; 
but what was fair for one was fair to all. All the 
tests whose results I shall publish were, as in arith- 
metic, taken under my personal supervision. In a 
few cases the story was sent by request to schools 
that I did not reach, and the work of the pupils 

^ October-December, 1903. 

* The story — an account of Pestalozzi's school at Stanz — will 
be found on page 213. 

[180] 



THE RESULTS OF A TEST IN LANGUAGE 

was forwarded to me; but these schools are not in- 
cluded in the table of results (page 189). 

Owing to the courtesy of the school people whom 
I had the good fortune to approach, the collection 
of the papers proved to be a comparatively simple 
affair; but it was not an easy matter for me to 
decide what to do with the material after it had 
been snugly deposited in my workshop. The value 
of my tests depends, of course, upon a trustworthy 
comparison of the results obtained in different 
schools, which implies a system of marking that is 
truly representative of the work of each individual 
set of papers. In spelling, naturally, the marking 
is no problem whatever. A word is either right or 
wrong, and the computing of the class average is a 
purely mechanical affair. In arithmetic, also, the 
marking is a comparatively simple matter ; although, 
in that subject, the question of partial credits serves, 
to a certain extent, to complicate the situation. 

Nor is it difficult to work out class averages in 
language when the test in that branch consists of a 
series of technical questions, to each of which a 
certain number of credits is allotted. But my ex- 
amination was limited to a test of the pupil's ability 
to express his thoughts in writing, a phase of work 
that apparently does not permit of marking on a 
percentage basis — certainly the most intelligible 
one. But after experimenting for some time in one 
way and another, there suddenly flashed before my 
mind a scheme that might make the percentage sys- 
tem feasible; and, to my surprise and gratification, 
I found, on trial, that it did not only work like a 
[181] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

charm, but that it possessed the merit of such re- 
markable speed that it would give me the oppor- 
tunity to mark personally, within a reasonable pe- 
riod, every one of the 8,300 papers in my possession ; 
thus insuring a degree of uniformity in criticism 
that could not have been expected if the papers 
had been distributed for marking among a number 
of clerical assistants. In regard to speed, I may 
mention that I found no difficulty whatever in mark- 
ing some of the papers at the rate of sixty to seventy 
an hour. 

When I had completed the marking, I began to 
fear that after all I might have followed a flight of 
imagination, and that my plan would not stand the 
test of close inspection. I therefore decided to be 
on the safe side and go over the work a second time 
for the purpose of verification. And this I did in 
the case of all the papers of the sixth, seventh, and 
eighth school years ; but I did not have time to 
revise the fourth and fifth year marks before the 
article went to press. As a result of the second 
marking, the absolute figures were slightly changed, 
but the relative position of the schools remained 
practically the same. For this reason, I feel satis- 
fied that the percentages really represent, for all 
practical purposes, what the work of the respective 
classes was worth from a comparative point of view. 

It might be supposed that in marking for ex- 
pression, the judgment of the individual examiner 
would necessarily enter as an important factor. 
That the personal equation does play a part in the 
work cannot be denied; but it is no less true that, 
[182] 



THE RESULTS OF A TEST IN LANGUAGE 

for our purposes, it is comparatively insignificant. 
While, in spite of my experience, I could not even 
now mark a set of papers twice in the same way, 
nevertheless, this much is certain, that the class 
average on the two markings would not vary suffi- 
ciently to make any material difference. For ex- 
ample, a set of eighth year papers, to make a re- 
spectable showing, will have to average not less 
than 50 per cent. Now, if I should mark an eighth 
year set and the average should turn out to be 30 
per cent, it would be positive proof that the work 
of that class was poor. If, for the sake of verifica- 
tion, I should then go over the set again, either 
immediately or at a later period, I might work out 
a class average of 35 per cent. This, however, 
would not in any way alter the fact that it was far 
below the minimum of satisfactory eighth grade 
work. In a word, I believe that in marking for 
expression the personal element may be so reduced 
as to be no greater than it is in marking a set of 
papers in arithmetic. And the differences in the 
results in language, as in arithmetic, are so very 
great that in the present stage of school work the 
finer distinctions are in no way called for. 

As I do not wish any of the above statements to 
be accepted on faith, I shall, in this chapter, publish 
a number of carefully selected papers which will 
not only serve the purpose of demonstrating my 
system of marking, but which will, at the same time, 
give the reader at least a little insight into the 
language work as found in the elementary schools. 
And as these papers will take up considerable space, 
[183] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

I shall concentrate attention upon them in the pres- 
ent chapter, and defer to the next the discussion of 
some further details. 

As to the plan of marking, it is certainly a very 
simple one. It lies merely in dividing the papers 
into five classes — excellent, good, fair, poor, and 
failure — and marking them on a scale of five; the 
best papers being given five credits, and the failures 
one. In changing these figures to percentages, the 
five's are given 100, the four's 75, the three's 50, 
the two's 25, and the one's zero. The class averages 
are then computed in the usual way, by dividing the 
total number of credits by the number of pupils 
represented. 

The examination having been a test in lan- 
guage, the determining point in the marking was 
not the thought manifested in the reproduction, 
but the English — sentence construction, capitaliza- 
tion, punctuation, paragraphing, etc. Naturally, 
the judgment could not help being biased, to a cer- 
tain extent, by the construction of the story itself; 
but, to allay all doubt as to the actual extent to 
which the story played a part in the marking, I 
need merely emphasize the fact that the relation 
between the character of the English and the con- 
struction of the story was, as a rule, quite close. 
That is to say, generally speaking, the pupils who 
manifested the greatest ability in sentence construc- 
tion, punctuation, etc., also manifested the greatest 
ability in the interpretation and reproduction of 
the story. 

I shall now define what I mean by the terms ex- 
[184] 



THE RESULTS OF A TEST IN LANGUAGE 

cellent, good, fair, poor, and failure, and then illus- 
trate my definitions by the children's work. 

Beginning at the upper end, I may say that the 
mark 5 was not dispensed with a lavish hand, but 
was reserved for those papers that were not only, 
for the most part, accurate in English, but dis- 
played, in addition, an artistic touch. Under these 
circumstances, it is not surprising that the total 
number of 5s was not very large. But what is 
really surprising is the fact that in one set of 
thirty-four eighth grade papers as many as twelve 
were 5s, while in each of two other eighth grade 
sets, containing thirty-five and thirty-seven papers, 
respectively, as many as ten were 5s. When it is 
borne in mind that the first draft only was accepted, 
and that all possibilities of fraud were eliminated 
by the fact that the papers were collected and car- 
ried off by myself before the close of the session, 
the work of these classes must be looked upon as 
very remarkable achievements, and altogether be- 
yond what we might expect to find in the elementary 
schools. A single 5, or even two or three 5s, in 
a set would not necessarily speak in favor of a 
school, as a few individual pupils with literary taste 
might happen to drop into a very ordinary class. 
But when the work of fully one-third of a class 
is artistic, that of the next third strong, and the 
work of the last third passable, I must confess that 
I am tempted to jump to the conclusion that almost 
every pupil is capable of acquiring the art of writ- 
ing good English, and that the normal child is not 
to blame if he has not acquired the power of ex- 
[185] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGExMENT IN EDUCATION 

pressing his thoughts in creditable English by the 
time lie graduates from the elementary school. And 
this conclusion is fortified by the fact that I have 
in my collection no less than five sets of eighth year 
papers where the work is acceptable almost to the 
last pupil. In the closing paragraph of my series 
of articles on arithmetic, I stated that the test had 
certainly proved this one thing, namely, that every 
normally constituted child has the ability to acquire 
a thorough knowledge of arithmetic, and that if he 
fails to do so the fault is not his ; and the same 
now appears to be true of language. 

One of the schools just referred to, and two 
others, teach us another important lesson. When 
I had published my results in arithmetic, the opin- 
ion was expressed by many that the schools which 
had made the high percentages in that subject had 
probably concentrated their attention on arithmetic, 
and that they would be likely to show lamentable 
weakness if they should be examined in other 
branches. I am now in position to say, in answer 
to this argument, that this theory is not borne out 
by the facts. Of the eighteen schools examined in 
arithmetic, six succeeded in obtaining the passing 
mark, 60 per cent ; and of these six schools four 
were put through my test in language. Now, it so 
happens that of these four schools three are among 
the first five of the twenty-two schools examined in 
language. This would appear to indicate that a 
successful teacher of arithmetic is also a successful 
teacher of language. However, the reverse of this 
does not seem to hold, for some of the schools that 
[186] 



THE RESULTS OF A TEST IN LANGUAGE 

were weak in arithmetic did very creditable work in 
language. Of course, the data that I have collected 
in regard to this point are too meagre to warrant 
me in drawing any definite conclusions ; but there 
are certainly indications to the effect that one who 
has the power to train comparatively dull pupils 
to see through complicated arithmetical problems 
has the power to train them thoroughly in other 
subjects as well. 

The papers that I shall now present to illustrate 
the different types of reproductions, from the 5s 
down through the Is, have all been selected from 
eighth year sets ; and, in the marking, I endeavored 
to adhere to these models, even in the lower grades. 
Under these circumstances, due allowance will, of 
course, have to be made for the handicap as we de- 
scend from grade to grade; and, basing our ex- 
pectations on actual achievement, the following 
standards are not unreasonable: Fourth year, 10 
per cent; fifth year, 15; sixth year, 25; seventh 
year, 37.5 ; and eighth year, 50. Owing to the very 
low standards I have set for the fourth and fifth 
grades, I did not take these classes into account 
in computing the average for each school as a whole, 
but based the latter on the work of the sixth, seventh, 
and eighth school years. Thus, the passing average 
of a school has been placed at 37.5 ; and a glance 
at Table I will show that, of the twenty- two build- 
ings examined, seven only succeeded in meeting this 
demand — just the same proportion as in arithmetic. 

As the above figures do not convey the same 
meaning as do percentages in spelling or arithmetic, 
[187] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

because we are not here dealing with the method of 
right and wrong cases, it might be well to call the 
reader's attention to the following. Speaking in a 
general way, a set of papers that averages 25 per 
cent is composed mainly of papers marked 2 and 
contains a 3 for every 1. A set that averages 37.5 
is composed principally of 2s and 3s and contains a 
4 for every 1. A set that averages 50 is composed 
chiefly of 3s and contains a 4 for every 2. And 
a set whose percentage is 75 is made up mainly of 
4s and contains a 5 for every 3. With the aid of 
these formulae and the typical illustrations, the 
reader may form a fairly accurate idea of the char- 
acter of a set of papers of any given percentage. 

The following are a few illustrations of the type 
of reproductions marked 5: 

About a hundred years ago, in far off Switzerland, there 
existed the little hamlet of Stanz in which were many poor 
people. A dreadful war had made homeless a score of little 
children, and it was to provide for these orphans that a school 
was originated. Unlike the modern ones of to-day was that 
little school. It consisted of one room in an old, ruined con- 
vent. But it was the best and only place the town afforded. 
Its master, a kind old man and a lover of children, had their 
interests at heart and desired to make good men of the boys, 
even though poverty so early retarded their progress. He 
found it diiEcult to teach the children at first, but after they 
discovered his feeling toward them, they did their utmost to 
please him. Owing to the limited space, all their time was 
spent in the one room. There they ate, slept, and had their 
lessons, for the teacher had generously undertaken to keep 
house for them as well as instruct them. He was constantly 
with them and acted as their companion, even taking part in 
their sports. As an amusement, he frequently told them 
stories after lessons were over. 

But it was not their privilege to remain here long. War, 

[188] 



THE RESULTS OF A TEST IN LANGUAGE 






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£1891 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

the bane of their existence as it seemed, again broke out, and 
one day, about a year after they had entered the school, a 
battle was fought near Stanz. Wounded soldiers were carried 
into the village to be cared for, and as no place for their 
shelter, other than the room in the convent, was available, a 
man was sent to inform the master of the sorrowful fact that 
the school must be given up. Sadly and reluctantly, the boys 
prepared to leave the building, old and dilapidated though it 
was, where they had spent the happiest and brightest days of 
their lives, and around which in after years they were to 
associate many pleasant memories. 



Very soon after the close of the bloody war with Austria, 
Stanz, a poor Swiss village which had suffered heavily in the 
campaigns near it, established a home and school for the 
orphan sons of the sacrificed soldiers. It was a humble room 
in a poor convent, but in it the boys ate, slept, and studied. 
They were cared for and instructed in their lessons by an old 
man who was fond of children, and so volunteered to act as 
their father and teacher. At first the boys, unaccustomed to 
anything but entire liberty, disliked him, but soon, as they 
realized and appreciated the sacrifice he was making for them, 
they joined to love and praise him. 

They were not destined, however, long to remain in this 
haven of safety, for, within a year of its foundation, war 
again broke out. Again a battle was fought near Stanz, and 
many Swiss were wounded. The school-room was the only 
place available for their protection, and the boys were for 
the time deprived of their home. 



About a hundred years ago, there existed in a little town 
of Switzerland, named Stanz, a school, which was made for the 
purpose of educating some poor boys. The parents of these 
children were killed in a war, leaving their children orphans 
and destitute of food and shelter. 

The school consisted of but one room in an old convent. 
It was poorly provided for, but the people of Stanz were not 
wealthy and could do only a little for such a cause. The 
charge of this little school was given to an old man who was 
kind and thoughtful and very fond of children. Because this 

[190] 



THE RESULTS OF A TEST IN LANGUAGE 

one room was all they had, it had to serve for every purpose. 
Here they ate, studied and slept, but their devoted teacher 
was so kind to them in every way, they were glad to endure 
some hardships. 

There was one obstacle, however. At that time children 
were not made to attend school, and because of this many 
did not study, and remained uneducated. So it was with 
these boys. They felt that the master asked too much of them 
when he forced them to study and learn. But he talked with 
them kindly and coaxed them to be studious. Soon they dis- 
covered that all he did was for their own good, that when 
they studied and learned it was for their own benefit and 
theirs only. Then they were anxious to learn. They wanted 
to be good and noble men, to learn what their master would 
teach them and be well educated. 

Only a year had this little school room been in use when 
a war broke out in the neighborhood of Stanz. One day a 
battle was fought near by and several wounded soldiers were 
brought into the town for shelter. Unfortunately the officer 
who was in charge of them could find no place to put them, 
and after a while he found a room in an old convent which 
would answer his purpose. This room was our little school 
room, and solemnly the officer told the old master what was 
his wish. The master consented, and the boys had to leave 
their old devoted companion who had cared for them, taught 
them, and played with them, to enter the world alone. They 
did so sorrowfully, but their master had taught them to care 
for themselves and be brave, honest lads. 

The reproduction of the type marked 4 differs 
from the 5 in that it is altogether lacking in that 
originality which lends to the latter its artistic 
flavor. Its characteristic features are: (1) That it 
is composed of well-constructed sentences; (2) that 
it is nearly or quite free from technical errors ; and 
(3) that it relates a well-defined, connected story. 
A set that starts out with a 4 and maintains that 
standard to the middle of the class makes a very 
favorable impression, and is highly satisfactory. 

[191] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

One of tlu' iM^lith year sots in my possession Is com- 
posed almost entirely of 4s, and, from tlie stand- 
point of uniform excellence, is a remarkable demon- 
stration of the fact, above referred to, that by 
means of thorou^li iiistriietion even the dullest 
pupils can be trained Id write good English. The 
foHowIng are examples of 4s: 

About a liiindrcd yrurs ny!;o, thrrc existed in tlie city of 
Stanz, in Swit/.erlaiid, a school for poor boys, 

Before this time a lerribU* war had broken out and a great 
many children were left orphans, so an ohl man offered to 
take care of them. A small room in a convent was given to 
ihem, and it was used as their school-room, bed-room, and 
their living-room. 

At first the little children did not like the old man, because 
he made them work, but after they found out that what he 
was doing was for their own bi'nclit, they began to love and 
obey him. lie not only taught them, but also entered into 
their games, often amusing them with funny stories. 

As you may think these little ones loved their home, but 
they were not allowed to remain in it long. Another war 
broke out and a battle was fought near Stanz, the caj)tmn 
found out that the oidy place of shelter for the wounded sol- 
diers was this little room in the convent. The captain told 
the old man of it, and the poor motherless little ones were 
turned out of their lu)nu\ which they loved so much. 



About one hundred years ago in the little town of Stanz, 
in Switzerland, there was a school for jnoor orphan boys. 

The school itself was not large and was situated in one 
room of an old convent. The keeper of the school was a kind 
old num who was fond of children. When the school was 
started he ofl'ered to keep the little ones and also teach the 
others. The school was very poor but the people around the 
sch(H)l were very poor too and it was the best they could give 
tlu'se j)Oor orphans, whose mothers and fathers had been killed 
during a great war. 

The children at this time were not obliged to go to school 

[192] 



THE RESULTS OP A TEST IN LANGUAGE 

and the schoolmaster found it very hard to make them learn. 

At first the children did not like him because he made them 
learn, but when they found out it was for their own good 
they began to love and obey him. 

As this one room was all that was given them it was used 
for everything and in this room they ate, slept and went to 
school. 

Unfourtuneatly they only went to school one year when an- 
other war broke out. One day there was a battle near Stanz 
and several of the soldiers were wounded and it was found 
there was only one place to take them and was in the little 
school room. 

1"he officer then came to the old schoolmaster and told him 
what he needed and so the little school room in the old con- 
vent was turned into a hospital. So the children were forced 
to leave the little school they had learned to love so well. 



When we come to the papers marked 3, we arrive 
at the point where the complications begin to set 
in. The typical 5s and the typical 4s are very plain 
sailing, as they are practically unmistakable; but 
the 3s are of different types, which may, however, 
be divided into two classes. Of these, one class is 
practically unmistakable; but the other calls for 
the exercise of judgment, and some examiners might 
be disposed to mark the papers of this class 4. 

The unmistakable 3 is a reproduction that resem- 
bles the typical 4, both in the sentence construction 
and in the construction of the story, but differs 
from it in that it contains a number of very pal- 
pable flaws, such as poorly constructed or incom- 
plete sentences, errors in expression or verbal forms, 
the occasional running of sentences together, etc. 
Nevertheless, in form and structure, papers of this 
type contain enough good points to save them from 
[193] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

being classed as poor. The papers belonging to the 
other class of 3s are practically free from actual 
errors, but present the one characteristic feature of 
weakness, which, in my opinion, makes them un- 
worthy of being classed with the 4s. The following 
are illustrations of papers marked 3: 

About one hundred years ago in the city of Stanz Switzer- 
land a school for poor boys was started. This school was for 
the boys who had lost their parents in the terril)le struggle 
just before this time. The school comprised only one room, 
this was for the pupils to live in and to have school. 

This school was not a very comfortable one it was in an 
old covent. Their teacher was an old man who loved chil- 
dren very much. At first the pupils did not like their teacher, 
(but) because he made them work and learn their lessons. In 
those days the children were not sent to school and this was 
the reason why they were not willing to study and learn. 

The people of Stanz were poor, and they could not afford 
a better school. At last the children began to love their 
teacher, he was always with them and tried to make every 
pleasant for them. He took part in their games and sports 
and sometimes would tell him interesting stories. 

The school did not last for more than a year when one 
day the war broke out again and battle was fought near 
Stanz, and some soldiers were wounded, the officer went Stanz 
to find a place for the wounded soldier but he could not find 
one in the city except the one room in the covent. The officer 
went to the school and told the master his story. The teacher 
gave him the school for the soldiers and the boys had to leave 
their home they loved so well. 



About one hundred years ago in a small town called Stanz, 
in Switzerland their were a great many poor boys whose 
fathers had been killed in war. In this town their lived a 
very kind old man who agreed to teach and take care of 
these poor boys. 

The only place they could find for a school-room was a 
small room in a convent. 

At first the boys did not like their school-master because 

[ 194] 



THE RESULTS OF A TEST IN LANGUAGE 

he made them work, but they soon leared it was for their 
good that he was doing it and they loved and obeyed him. 

But these poor boys did not have much room for they had 
to study, eat and sleep in this one little room. These boys 
did not keep their abode long, for one day (about a year after 
they had been — there — there was a battle near Stanz and a 
great many soldiers were wounded, and the General came to 
Stanz to see if he could find a shelter for these poor wounded 
soldiers, and the only place he could find was the boys school- 
room so he mournfully came to the schoolmaster and asked 
him if he would let him shelter the soldier there & the school- 
master said yes & so the poor boys were turned on the street 
again. 



As we continue on our downward path the com- 
plications increase, and by the time we get into the 
middle of the 2s the papers begin to lose a well- 
defined form. The reproductions of class 2 are 
manifestly poor; and their distinguishing feature is 
that the flaws outweigh the good points, while there 
is still enough of the righteous in them to save them 
from being classed as actual failures. 

At the upper end of the 2s, i.e.y at the line of de- 
marcation between them and the 3s, we still find 
papers whose structure resembles that of the 4s ; 
but they abound in errors of one kind or another, 
and are therefore not difficult to distinguish. An 
example follows: 

About a hundred years ago their was a terrible war broke 
out near "Stanz" in Switzerland. Their was quite a good 
many boys who lost their parnets and lost their home. The 
people of Stanz were poor but they tried to help these boys. 
They found out for them an old convent. This convent had 
but one room in it. An old man said that he would go & live 
with these boys & be their master. 

The boys at first did not like him, because he tried to teach 

[195] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

them but they soon liked him for trying to teach them. He 
was very kind to them & did all he could to help them & he 
soon made them happy & they did not think so much of their 
dear father & mother who were gone of them. 

This kind old man did not only teach them but also en- 
tered into some of their games. He often told them stories. 
He was like a companion to them he was always with them. 

As I said their was one room in the convent they had to 
— sleep — eat their meals & also to learn their lessons & play 
their games here sometimes. These boys did not hate their 
school master any more but loved him, dearly. 

About a year after they had lived in this convent another 
war broke out near by & their were many soldiers who were 
injured. The commander of these soldiers (who were hurt) 
wanted a place to take them. The poor people of Stanz did 
not know of any place that he could take them at last he 
found out this place where the boys had lived with their school- 
master for about a year so peaceably with one another. 

He came to the master of these poor boys & told him that 
their was a good many soldiers who had been hurt in this out 
break of war & he said he had not place to take them. So 
the master said that he could have the convent which only 
had the one room in it & the boys gave up their home to the 
sick & injured soldiers. 

This was turned into a hospital for the soldiers. The boys 
love this convent but gave it up to the sick. 



Next we find papers that have but little in their 
favor beyond properly constructed sentences sand- 
wiched between faulty ones: 

About a hundred years, in Switzerland a place called Stanz 
their was opened a school in a convent. The people in Stanz 
were poor themselves and could not pay much to support the 
school. The school consisted of one room occupied by orphans 
who had lost their parents during a terrible, in this room 
they had school, ate there lunch, played, also slept. The place 
was taken care of by an old man who was the boys teacher. 
They did not like him very much because he made them learn 
and boys in Stanz were not compelled to go to school, but 

[196] 



THE RESULTS OF A TEST IN LANGUAGE 

when they seen he was teaching them and doing everything 
for there own good they began to like this old man. He played 
with them in all there games and was just like a brother to 
them. 

But a war had broke out again and one day a battle took 
place near Stanz and some soldiers were wounded and the 
only place the captain could find to put the wounded soldiers 
was in the school room in the convent, thus the poor boys had 
to leave there school room just as they were beginning to 
love it. 

I have also classed among the 2s the papers of 
pupils who are able to construct fairly good sen- 
tences, but who are in the habit of repeatedly run- 
ning them together. 



Of the Is it is not necessary to say a great deal, 
as they speak so eloquently for themselves, and rep- 
resent merely an infinite variety of examples of 
English as it should not be written. On considering 
papers of this nature, the uninitiated will be likely 
to conclude that their authors, by reason of un- 
favorable hereditary influences, had entered this 
mundane sphere with brains incapable of normal de- 
velopment, or, by reason of unfavorable home en- 
vironment, had had their intellects stunted during 
the pre-scholastic period. But my dear reader of 
the uninitiated class, I beg of you not to believe 
anything of the kind, but to take my word for it 
that in the vast majority of such cases the pre- 
scholastic period was innocent. 

As, in most instances, the percentages in the 

fourth and fifth year classes were very low, it is 

evident that the test was too severe for these grades. 

Indeed, all things considered, 60 per cent of failures 

[197] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

in the fourth year, and 40 per cent in the fifth, may 
be looked upon as pardonable. However, already 
in the sixth year some comparatively good work was 
done; and, judging by the general results, an al- 
lowance here of 33 per cent of failures is liberal. 
In the seventh grade, the failures should not have 
exceeded 20 per cent, and in the eighth they should 
have been reduced to 5 per cent. I have, indeed, in 
my possession at least half a dozen eighth year sets 
that are absolutely free from failures. Nevertheless, 
some of the sixth year sets were composed almost 
entirely of Is; some of the seventh year sets con- 
tained as many as 60 per cent of them ; while several 
eighth year sets contained 30 per cent or over, one 
of them running as high as 42. 

The following are illustrations of papers of this 
type: 

About one hundred years ago in the city of Stanz in Swit- 
zerland there was a home statarted for poor boys and this 
school was conducted by and old man who taught them and 
played with them, most of these children were orphans and 
this school was started principally for them, it was one room 
where they ate there meals and slept, after they had been in 
the school for about one year the war broke out again and 
there was a battle fought near Stanz and there was a number 
of soldiers wounded and there was know place to put the 
wounded soldiers so the Commander of the army came to see 
the teach to tell him he would like to have the room for the 
wounded Soldiers and the little school was broken up and the 
little children had to give up there homes. 



About a hundred year ago there was a school started for 
poor boy, the school was in Stanz Switzerland. The school 
was for the boy who parents were killed in a terrible war. 
The school was not neat or comfortable, it was in an old 

[198] 



THE RESULTS OF A TEST IN LANGUAGE 

room of an convent, they had a kind teacher, who cooked for 
them and did every thing he could for them. 

In Stanz the boys w^ere not compelled to go to school, so 
the teacher had a hard time in getting his pupils togeather. 
The boy thought he was a cross teacher because he made them 
work, but it was for their own good, soon the boy found that 
he was kind to them, he used to be with them in all their 
games and to amuse then he tell them stories. 

In the room where they had the school was not only a 
school room, but the boy sleept and eat and have school in the 
one room. This was the best school the people in Stanz could 
afford because they were poor themselves. 

This school did not last long. In about a year a war broke 
out near Stanz, and several soilders were wounded. The in- 
jures were carried in to town who were care for by an officer, 
they looked all over for shelter but could not find it, at last 
the Officer came to the school room and he was very sad, he 
told the school teacher that they would have to give up the 
school for shelter for the wounded soldiers, so the school was 
turned into a hospital. 

The boy had to leave their good home and go seeking for 
another. 



About one hundred years ago there resisted in Stanzs in Swit- 
zerland a school for poor boy who had no father and mother. 
This school was kept purpose for making homes for the poor 
boys. 

The place where this school was kept was neither large or 
comfortable. It consisted of one large room and home. A 
very kind old man promised to be their teacher and also their 
house keeper and the little ones althought the boys did not 
like him at first because he made them work; but when they 
saw it was for their good they loved him. He taught them and 
played games and even told storys. But they did not stay 
this way long for a terrible war broke out and a battle was 
fought near Stanzs. 

The wounded soldiers were brought to the village and the 
only place for them were in this school. The poor boys gave 
up the school they love. 



In addition to Is of the foregoing t3rpes, I have 
[199] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

come across a great many papers that are, strictly 
speaking, even below zero ; and, as they make rather 
interesting reading, it may not be out of place to 
publish a few of them here. However, while they 
all appear to be literary curiosities, I wish to direct 
attention to the fact that papers such as the fol- 
lowing, all taken from fourth year sets, do not 
represent isolated cases, but are more or less repre- 
sentative of the work of lower classes whose averages 
did not exceed 5 or 6 per cent. 

About one hundred years ago a boy broke, out many poor 

boy lost his home. 

And a old man said I will be the teacher and mind the house. 

This person was killed in the war. 

The school only had one room, 

And they never liked their teacher, because they made it to a 

hospital, and the poor boys loved their teacher. 



About 1600 year ago it was home for Poor boy. 

It was kept at the Stanz in Switzerland. 

A man was the teacher, and kept the milps to give the poor 
boy to eat. 

They thought that the man is giveing to hard work. But 
the man said it was for thier own stake. 

After they were sheltred in war they broke open the home 
and maid a hostipal. 

The man learn them game and read book for them to make 
them happier. 

They stoud one year in the little home. 



"I am going to say a story and I am going to," asked you 
one. 

A hundred years ago children lost their parents in the 
Stanz Switzerland. They were poor and had no home. They 
went to school where they could sleep, and an old man used 
to teach them to read. The children did not like to stay in 

[ 200] 



THE RESULTS OF A TEST IN LANGUAGE 

the school, but they gave them a room where they sleep, school 
and meal and sheletered themselves. Afterward they went to 
a house called the hospels, and the poor children did not like 
to stay in one room, but the man teach then to read, write 
and sing. Afterward the children became happener and were 
friend. 



A school for poor boy's About a hundred years ago there 
was a war where many people got killed in war And a man 
bluit a school for poor boy's and many people got killed and 
some boy's never had a mother or a father and so they went 
to school and after a boy told the man in school that it ought 
to go to a hosipel and so they all left school and they thanket 
the man for the school." 



I am going to tell a story about one of our own. 

About two hundred years ago in Stanza Switzerland there 
was a school room. It was large and comfortable. There 
was a terrible war and the teacher had trouble teaching them. 
A man who was fond of children one day he said there were 
two orphans. About a year there was a terrible war. They 
called many wounds soldiers and it was a war. 

The school became a very large hosiptal and children lost 
their parents by war. A man consist of a great many folks 
and they companion. They had a oparns house and they 
thought it was there home. The childrens afterwards were 
glad and had no trouble more. 



There were poor boys which they have lost their parents 
and they go to a small school in Switzerland. So they eat 
dirnk and slept and even the teacher eat, drank and slept. 
Nearly two hundrend years ago there was a small school in 
Switzerland and that school was for poor boy's. And it told 
the whole room to write a story about a schol for poor boy's 
and it told us to write it with ink and write it neat. At first 
they didn't like to go to school then he thought them something 
in school. And then they liked school and they had to stay 
with the teacher. 



About one hundred years ago there was a Stanz in Switzer- 
land and there were a lot of poor boy in that Stanz that had 

[201] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

no parents they went to war and the poor children had to go 
to tliat Stanz and that stanz was made into every thing 

And the man who had charge of it was a very nice man he 
use to play with them and the teacher had hard work to get 
the boy's in to learn 

And they did not like him and after a time their heard 
that is was for their good so the work for him and obeyed 
him 

So not long after their was a war broke out and waght 
near the stanz and the officer of their army said I know only 
one place and that was the Stanz was made into a hospital and 
wounded soldiers was in there and the boor children hard to 
leave their home wich they like it very well, it was all occant 
of the soldier their had to leave there home 



After one hundred year ago there is in Switzerland a little 
school for poor boys. It was put on for purpose until the 
dureful war. It was meater large or comfortable. For the 
boys how had lost their plarnes in the dreadful war. It was 
keep by an old man in a room connection. First they did not 
like him because he made them work and he learned them how 
to play games and tell stories and them they love him. Then 
another war broke out an a number of soldiers were brang in 
the room connectent. The officers that were in the war brang 
this soldiers and then it was made a hosipal, and the children 
would not stay no longer. 



Nearly 100 year ago in town of Stanz on Switzerland there 
ofen a little school for the poor boys that they last they parent 
with a trowble war. And they us to go the school every day 
and they had they neatl in the little roon of the house school. 
But often a while they love they master and they obley in 
and then became to made a battle and they had a big war of 
soldiers that the school had to be change into hospital that 
the little poor boys had to do the little home for they self. 



I am goning to Read you a stor bunded yeaer a gon. 
Thay was in Stanz was waler and the chelden pares got celt 
in the waler and they din have now school to gon to and 

[ 202 ] 



THE RESULTS OF A TEST IN LANGUAGE 

after thay was lettle school open? And it was one room the 
school and thay take the meyls in the same room in Switzer- 
land and the chelden den like the teacher but after thay fan 
out that. He was doing it for ther sak the chelden began 
the like him He was gan hope then in the gam and ever thing 
that He cund do? Not a yaer after a nother waler brok out 
ner biy in Switzerland. And then thay was wonded solid 
thay was onty one plays to breing them to the old convet 
school and then it was twon to and horsepoilt and then the 
chelden was tuon out of ther home? And the solid was in it? 



Having illustrated my system of marking, I shall 
now direct the reader's attention to the results, 
which are given in Table I. A glance at that table 
will show that in the fourth year the grade averages 
have varied between 15.5 per cent and zero; in the 
fifth year, between 23.7 and 5.1 ; in the sixth, be- 
tween 36.8 and 12.7 ; in the seventh, between 46.5 
and 15.7; and in the eighth, between 76.2 and 29.4. 
Taking the figures just as they stand, we find that 
the best fourth year work was as good as the poorest 
seventh, and the best fifth year work not far below 
the poorest eighth. 

But the percentages given in the table tell less 
than the whole truth, because they merely represent 
the work of a grade as a whole, while in most 
schools each grade is composed of several individual 
classes, sometimes as many as five. Taking the 
averages of individual classes, we naturally find the 
extreme variations to be still greater. Fourth grade, 
22.5 to zero; fifth grade, 35.0 to 2.0; sixth grade, 
46.2 to 5 ; seventh grade, 52.2 to 8.5 ; and eighth 
grade, 76.2 to 19.0. When the figures are exam- 
ined from this narrower point of view, we see that 
[203] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

the best, fourth year work was better than the 
poorest eiti^htli. 

But, takino- a very broad survey, and comparing 
the averages obtained in all the grades of the first 
six schools in Table 1 with those obtained in all the 
grades of the last six, /.(•., comparing the schools 
comprising the first quarter of the table with those 
comprising the last quarter, we find a difference in 
favor of the former of ahnost two school years. The 
figures follow (Table II) : 

Tahi.e II. 

Grade 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 

() luohcst 1^.7 18.9 [l^A 44.3 64.0 

(i lowest :t.9 9AI lU) 23A 33.6 

The results given in Table II are the more re- 
markable in that, comparatively speaking, they show 
the conditions in language to be almost identical 
with those that were found in arithmetic, where the 
highest six schools of the eighteen examined were 
two school years ahead of the lowest five. In view 
of the fact that recent educational discussion has 
dealt so largely with plans and methods of shorten- 
ing the course of training from the elementary school 
up througli the university, the lesson taught by my 
tests in arithmetic and language should not be en- 
tirely overlooked. 

The figures are certainly striking, and the conclu- 
sion to be drawn from Table II cannot be doubted 
except on tlie ground that my system of marking 
had not been carefully applied in practice. That 
the system ma^^ be misapplied I do not hesitate to 
[ 204 ] 



THE RESULTS OF A TEST IN LANGUAGE 

admit. The difficulty docs not lie witli tPie typical 
cases, which are distinctive enough, but with the 
papers that lie so close to the border line between 
4 and 3, or 3 and 2, etc., that it is not easy to de- 
cide whether to give them the higher or the lower 
mark. What I have endeavored to do in such in- 
stances has been to remain on the safe side by mark- 
ing the strong sets hypercritically and giving the 
weaker ones the benefit of the doubt. 

However that may be, to allay all doubt, even 
after the second marking had been completed, I de- 
cided to subject the whole system to a test which 
would be conclusive. This test lay in taking in hand 
certain individual sets of different degrees of ex- 
cellence, as shown by the class averages, and ar- 
ranging the papers in such a way that they would 
follow each other in the order of merit, from the 
first to the last. This arrangement then gave me an 
opportunity to compare the individual papers of 
sets having high percentages with those of sets hav- 
ing low percentages. The method was an extremely 
laborious one, but the effort was well repaid, as it 
really served to dispel all doubt. For an accurate 
comparison of two sets of papers by this method, 
it is necessary to compare the papers of different 
parts of these sets, on a scale down ; but, for gen- 
eral purposes, the middle one is fairly representative. 

To give the reader an opportunity to judge mat- 
ters for himself, I shall now place before him ten 
papers, the middle one of a strong and a weak set, 
respectively, of each of the grades from the fourth 
to the eighth. Moreover, this will give him an op- 
[205 ] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

portunitj not only to note the marked difference 
between strong and weak work in each individual 
grade, but to compare the strong work of a lower 
grade with the weak work of a higher one. The 
latter form of comparison will show that the work 
of a strong fifth grade was unquestionably superior 
to that of a weak eighth. As to the contest between 
the strong fourth and the weak eighth, I cannot see 
that there has been a decided victory on either side. 
However, if the former should be given just a little 
leeway, and the second paper above the middle one 
of the fourth grade compared with the second below 
the middle one of the eighth year set, the former 
would win by a respectable margin, as the reader will 
see.^ 

To avoid needless complications, I have selected 
all the poor papers in the following exhibit from 
schools whose pupils enjoy home surroundings at 
least as favorable as those enjoyed by the pupils of 
the school that stands second in Table I. 

Middle paper from a fourth year class averaging 
22.5 per cent : 

A number of years ago there was a great many boys who 
had no parents, there parents were killed in a war. 

There was an old man who took care of these children, he 

* In order to guard against the possibility of going astray 
in this particular instance, I requested a number of superin- 
tendents to meet at my office for the purpose of looking over 
the two sets that I had selected as the poorest eighth and the 
best fourth grade work. To my surprise, the verdict was 
unanimous to the effect that I had erred on the conservative 
side, because they all agreed that the fourth year set was bet- 
ter than the eighth. 

[206] 



THE RESULTS OF A TEST IN LANGUAGE 

had a small school where they were taught many lessons, they 
lived, ate, and slept there. 

These children were very poor but they did not seem to 
mind that much. 

The school was a very small, and uncomfortable school, it 
had but one room in it. 

After about a year another war broak out. this war was 
near Stanz. Stanz is in Switzerland. This small school was 
in Stanz. 

The war was a sad war and many people were killed and 
hurt. 

The children had to leave the school and it was made a 
hospital for the people who were hurt in the war. 

Middle paper from a fourth year class averaging 
6.0 per cent: 

Long ago there was a school for poor boys who parents were 

dead in the time of a terble war in Stanz in Switzerland 

ladies go and can mot come out again. 

There was a war near Stanz city and the soilder had to come 

here to stay in was the only place they could go to. 

The teacher was an old man how loved children and at first 

the children hated hin because he made them work, but a 

while after they begun to love him. 

There was only one room in this hospital and they had to 

study and eat there meal, and sleep to. the children had mo 

home they had to give up there loved school. 



Middle paper from a fifth year class averaging 
-0 npr rpnt ! 



35.0 per cent: 



About one hundred years ago in the little town of Stanz in 
Switzerland, a school was founded for some poor boys, they 
were orphans for their parents had been killed in great war 
which had taken place a long time before. The school con- 
sisted of one room in an old Convent, in which they slept, 
ate, and studied. Their teacher was a kind old man and of- 
fered to keep house for them as well as teach them, but at 
first the boys did not like him for he made them study, and 
in those days boys were not compelled to go to school. But 

[207] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

when they found out that he was doing it for their own good 
they began to love him, he not only helped them with their 
studies, but joined in their games and told them stories. 

One day a war brok out and a battle was fought near Stanz, 
many soldiers were wounded, and the only shelter they could 
get was in the room in the old Convent where the boys lived. 
When the Captian told the teacher, the teacher turned the 
school room into a hospital and the boys had to leave the 
home they had learned to love so well. 

Middle paper from a fifth year class averaging 
10.0 per cent: 

About a hundred years ago there lived a little boy in Stanz 
of Switzerland he had lost his parents and he went to a little 
house where lots of other poor children were to. 

There was an old man who loved children and he would 
teach them. At first the children did not like the man, but 
after a while they began to like him better. 

After they had finished this work they would go out and 
play and some times the man would play with them to. 

The old house was a convent and it was used by the poor 
boys as a school, eating and sleeping all in the same room. 

One day a was broke out near Stanz and some of the men 
were wounded, and that house was the only place the soldiers 
could get shelter, so the oficer took the men there and now 
it was used for a hospitle, and the poor boys had to seek 
shelter for them selfs. 



Middle paper from a sixth year set averaging 
41.5 per cent: 

About a hundred years ago there was a school started in 
the city of Stanz in Switzerland. It was for boys whose 
parents had been killed in the war. 

There was a man who was their teacher and their house- 
keeper. They had only one room and in that they slept, stud- 
ied and ate their meals. He was their companion and was al- 
ways with them he not only helped them with their tasks but 
joined them in their plays and told them stories. 

[ 208 ] 



THE RESULTS OF A TEST IN LANGUAGE 

At first he had hard work to get very many scholars as 
children were not made to go to school in those days. 

They hadn't been in the school but about a year when an- 
other war broke out. The captain wanted some place to put 
the wounded soldiers and he couldn't find any place but the 
schoolhouse. He was very sorry but he kindly asked the 
school-teacher if he could have it and so they had to give it 
up so they could use it for a hospital. 

Middle paper from a sixth year set averaging 
17.0 per cent : 

About a hundred years ago in a little town in Switzerland 
called Stanz there were a lot of boys who's parents had [did] 
died in a terrible war. 

The people of Stanz were poor so they could not give these 
boys a home finally the thought they could send them to an 
old comvent for a school. 

This school was neither large or comfortable, they had a 
single room in this the ate stuided and slept. 
^ They were placed in charge of a kind old man who loved 
children, he said he would keep house for them, so the chil- 
dren were sent here to school. 

But they had hardly been there a year when war broke out 
again and a battle was fought near Stanz and a lot of wounded 
soldiers were brought into stanz, the officer in charge found 
that the only place they could be brought was this school 
room so the boys were oblidged to give up the home they had 
learned to love so well. 



Middle paper from a seventh year set averaging 
>.0 per cent: 



45.0 per cent 



About one hundred years ago there was an old schoolhouse 
in a convent in Stanz, Switzerland. In this schoolhouse there 
was only one room, it was given as a schoolroom, sleeping- 
room and lunchroom for poor boys whose parents were killed 
during war. There was an old man who was very fond of 
children, and took the place as teacher and companion. 

At this time they were not compelled to go to school, and 
it was very hard to make them study. 

[209] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

When they were in not quite a year war broke out, and as 
there was no other place for the wounded soldiers the school- 
house was given to them, but the officer asked the teacher in 
a very kind manner, and the children liad to give up tlieir 
home they loved so well. 

So out of this old schoolhouse, there was a home for the 
wounded and dying soldiers. 

Middle paper from a seventh year set averaging 
19.1 per cent: 

Once upon a time about one hundred years ago there was 
a war near a city named Stany, Switzerland. All the people 
when war broke out enlisted. After the war many fathers 
and mothers were killed and there were a large number of 
ori)hans. 

So the city gave the a convent were they could go to 
school and learn. It was give to a good kind-hearted old man 
who was very fond of children. 

It was not a very comfortable place. But it had to do be- 
cause the people were not very rich. 

After it was started and the schoolmaster put them to work 
they began to dislike him. But after they found out that he 
was doing it for their good they began to like him. 

In those days boys and girls do not go to school but work. 
So it was hard for the school-master to get them to work. 

In this schoolhouse the children cooked, selpt, and study all 
in the same room. 

After a while a war broke out near Stanz and a number of 
soldiers were killed and wounded. But those who were 
wounded had no place to go but to go to this little school house 
in Stanz. So tliis little convent was made in a hospital. 



Middle paper from an eighth year set averaging 
75.0 per cent: 

About a hundred years ago there existed in Stanz, a town 
in Switzerland, a little school. This school was provided for 
a numl)er of poor boys, who had lost their fathers in a ter- 
rible war. The only place that could be found for this pur- 

[210] 



THE RESULTS OF A TEST IN LANGUAGE 

pose, was a room in an old convent. It was neither large 
nor comfortable as the people in Stanz were very poor, but it 
was the only refuge that could be had for the poor orphans. 

There was a kind old man, who was very fond of children 
and he offered to keep house and also teach the boys. As 
the children were not obliged to go to school in those days, 
the old man had a great deal of trouble to teach them. But 
he was very patient with them, and entered into their games, 
so in a short time they grew to love the old man and tried to 
learn their lessons, as they found it was for their own good. 

If we think of having school, eating our meals and sleeping 
in one room we must certainly think of these little boys as 
heroes. The school had not been kept a year yet, when an- 
other war broke out. There was a battle fought near Stanz 
and a number of wounded soldiers were brought into the 
town. The officer in charge could find no place of shelter for 
them, but the little school and sadly told the old man that it 
would have to be turned into a hospital; and the little orphans 
were forced to leave the school they had learned to love so 
well. 

Middle paper from an eighth year set averaging 
22.2 per cent: 

About one hundred years ago in the little town of Stanz in 
Switzerland there lived a good many children who's fathers 
were killed in a war. In this town of Stanz there lived a 
man, (he was an old man) he said that he would take these 
children and teach them. As all the other people were poor he 
had to take them to an old Convent where they had but one 
room in which to eat, sleep, and have their school. 

The old man not only taught them but played in their 
games with them. But as the children did not have to go to 
school in those days the children of this school did not like 
the man becaus he said that they all had to do as he said but 
after a time they understood that it was for their own good 
and so they got to like him. 

But the school was not to last long becaus there was an- 
other war that broke out and one battle was fought near 
Stanz and when it was over the wounded soldiers were taken 
into Stanz and when it was found that there was no place 
but one to put them the children lost their schooling. Be- 

[211] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

caus the only place to make a hauspittle was the one little 
room in the Convent wher the children had their school. 



Two above middle paper of fourth year set aver- 
aging 22.5 per cent: 

About 100 years ago there existed a small school for 
orphan's whose parents were kill in war. The school con- 
sisted of one room in the Convent. It was not very com- 
forttabel. This school was in Stanz a city in Switzerland. 

An old kind man took care of these children and was thier 
school master. At first the children did not like there master 
becase he made work. But after awhile they began to see 
how much good it did to them. 

But the children did not stay even a year. Another war 
broke out near Stanz. The capten brought some wounded 
soldiers to Stanz. The only place he could keep them in, 
was the school in the convent. The poor boys never knew how 
they liked home and master till they had to leave the home. 
The captain came to the old man and asked if he could have 
the school. So the school was turned into a Hospital for the 
wounded Soldiers. 

Two below middle paper of eighth year set aver- 
aging 22.2 per cent : 

About one hundred years ago in the town of Stanz there 
were alot of poor boys who had neither mother nor father. 
They had lost them in war. Now it came about that these 
poor boys should have a school. So in the town of Stanz there 
was a convent and it only had one room in it. Well the peo- 
ple thought that this room would do becaus the people them- 
selves were very poor. 

This class room was neither larg nor comfortable but any- 
way the people were even glad for this. The man who had 
charge of the school was an old man but he was very fond of 
children. He had a very hard time in teaching these children 
for their were never in school befor. The old man promised 
to teach and live with the children. He was like a father to 
them. They had to sleep and eat and study in the same 
room. 

[212] 



THE RESULTS OF A TEST IN LANGUAGE 

He would play with the boys at playtime so as to make 
them happy and was also very kind to them. 

It happen that children was not in this school no longer 
than a year when war broke out again. The war broke out 
right near Stanz and a battle was fought. There was quite a 
few soldiers wounded and the people were to poor to have a 
hospital. So the general seeing that the only thing to do was 
to go and asked to people of Stanz to let them have it. So 
he went and asked the old man. and he let them have it. 
So the only school was changed into a hospital. 



Original Story. 
A SCHOOL FOR POOR BOYS. 

I am going to read a short story to you, and then I shall 
ask you to write one of your cwn about it. 

About a hundred years ago, there existed, in the town of 
Stanz, in Switzerland, a little school. It had been opened 
for the purpose of giving a home to a number of very poor 
boys, who had lost their parents during a terrible war. 

The place in which the school was kept was neither large 
nor comfortable. It consisted of a single room in an old 
convent; but the people of Stanz themselves were poor, and it 
was the best home that they could provide for these orphans. 

The school was in charge of a kind old man, who was very 
fond of children. When it was opened, he offered to keep 
house for the little ones, and at the same time to be their 
teacher. 

As children were not obliged to go to school in those days, 
the teacher had a great deal of trouble in getting his pupils 
to learn. At first they did not like him, because he made 
them work. But as soon as they discovered that what he did 
was for their own good, they began to love and obey him. 

As only a single room had been given to them to live in, 
this one room had to be used for everything. In it they had 
their school, took their meals, and slept. The teacher was al- 
ways with them, and acted as their companion. He not only 
taught them, and helped them with their tasks, but also en- 
tered into their games, and often amused them by telling 

[ 213 ] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

Ihcm stories. Indeed, he did everythinp; he could to make 
ihcrn happy and to htad them to forget how j)oor they were. 
Jint it so ha|)})ened that the children were not allowed to 
remain long uiuler this roof. Before they had been in the 
hous(; a y<'ar, war broke out again. One day a battle was 
fought near Stanz, and a nun)ber of wounded soldiers were 
brought into the town. Unfortunately, the officer who was in 
charge of them found that there was only one j)lace in which 
they could be sheltered. It was the school-room in the con- 
vent. He then came to the teacher Jind sorrowfully told him 
what he needed. So the school-room was turned into a hos- 
pital, and the poor children were obliged to give up the little 
home that they had learned to love so well. 

(The teacher may write on the board the words "Stanz"and "Switzer- 
land." The children in the lower Krades should be told that Switzerland is in 
Europe.) 



A discussion of the causes of the variations in the 
results obtained in the different schools will now be 
in order. The items in the table bearing upon this 
toj)ic are : 

1. The amount of time devoted to language in the 
various schools; 

''A. U'lie average age of the pupils in the individual 
grades ; and 

f3. The nationality and environment of the pupils. 

1. As to time, the figures in the table are not 
to be accepted as final. They were computed from 
replies to printed questions distributed to the teach- 
ers after the test was taken, and are subject to 
revision upon closer study. But taking them tem- 
porarily just as tliey are — and we shall not go very 
far wrong })y doing so — we find, as in spelling and 
arithmetic, that there is no direct relation between 
time and results, that superior results cannot be 
[214] 



THE RESULTS OF A TEST IN LANGUAGE 

attributed to unusual pressure, or inferior results 
to lack of pressure. As the figures speak for them- 
selves, it will not be necessary for me to dilate upon 
this point ; and I merely wish to add here that as 
long as the same principle appears to apply to all 
branches investigated, we may now safely accept 
the proposition that if reasonable results do not 
follow upon a reasonable appropriation of time, the 
fault lies in the teaching and not in the time-table. 
In spelling, the time limit within which reasonable 
results may be expected was fixed by my data at 
fifteen minutes daily, and in arithmetic at forty-five 
minutes. In deciding upon a time limit in language, 
it will be necessary to consider both oral and written 
work ; and as the whole question borders very closely 
upon that of methods and devices, I shall defer its 
discussion to the next chapter. 

2. In studying the relation of age to results in lan- 
guage, we find, on looking at the general averages, 
that, as might naturally be expected, the results 
rise invariably from one grade to the next. How- 
ever, it will be seen that the ascent is by no means 
a regular one. From the fourth grade to the fifth, 
the advance is from 6.8 to 12.2, or 5.4 per cent; 
between the fifth and the sixth, the rise is from 
12.2 to 23.2, or 11.0 per cent; between the sixth 
and the seventh, it is from 23.2 to 30.6, or 7.4 
per cent; and between the seventh and the eighth, 
it is from 30.6 to 47.0, or 16.4 per cent. These 
figures look innocent enough, but I have never seen 
so many suggestive points crowded into so small 
a compass. For example, a general average of 6 
[215] 



SCN'lN'ril'IC MANA(n<:MKNT IN EDUCATION 

per cent in I lie loiirtJi grade, 12 in the fiftli, und 
''Zli in ilie .sixth Kuggc.st,s tfie .sending of a relief ex- 
pcdilion in search of iFie innuni<rahle first and .sec- 
ond ycjir lifcr-'uy pr()(hgi<s who must have been 
hh)wn out of tlieir course after steering successfully 
out of tfie second grade. Again, the comparatively 
insignific.'int gain [xlvvrcn tlic sixtfi and seventh years 
suggests an infjuiry into th<' clause of the weakne.ss 
in seventh year work, a weakness that w/i.s mani- 
fested in my test in aritfimetic as well. And there 
is also an irupiiry suggested hy tfie ra|:)id rise from 
the severdh to the eighth year, which in the general 
average is e(|u;il to lliat of any two [)revious years, 
and in the case of the sec'ond an(J tfiird schools is 
e(junl to that of the three [)receding years. 

Itut leaving these poirds for future discussion, and 
comparing the results of the different s(tfioofs from 
tfie slarufpoird. of age, we find tfiat tfie f)Uf)ifs in 
tfie schools at the lower end of tfie tal)fe are, on tfie 
wfiole, somewhat younger than those in tfu; scfioofs 
at tfie upper end, Jind tfiat tfie pupils in the last 
school are the youngest of all. Still, these differ- 
ences do not clear up tfie siluaiion, fxc^ause tfie 
tfieory of age wiff not fiold wlien the individual 
schools are compared with one anoffier. 'Vn cite 
l)ul a single instance, tfie average age in tfie eigfitfi 
gracfe of I fie second scfiool is just tfie same as tfiat 
in tfie eigfitfi grade of tfie tenlfi, wfiile tfie results are 
70.2 against 1-0.5. 

Hut should not some allowance f)e made for the 
last school, in view of the fact that its pu|>ils are 
tlie youngest.^ 1 answer, emj)fiatica,lly : By no 



THE iti':s[;i/rs of a tkst in ].an(;[ja(;k 

rrK'uns. 'llw pupils of any ^ivcn {j;ni(U' must, fic 
judged \)y ilw. standarcJs oi' Uiat, ^rarJc ; ancJ if tficy 
cannot compete; witfi ofiicrs on ific sarrif,' hasis, t.ficy 
fJo nof, lulon^ wfjcrc tficy urc Tficrc would fx- no 
art in d(;visin^ a Kystcrn of promotion wlicrchy IIk; 
pupils, as a class, would he cnahlcri to ^rafiu;i.t(; 
from tfif grammar school even at tlic age of twelve. 
IJut woulfJ they tli(;n he /:^ramrnar school gracJuates 
in tfic true sr:ns(; of tfie woni, or would they merely 
\)c f>rimary school gr;j.(Juates f>earing a gramm;ji.r- 
school lahel? 

*i. In n^riird to ruitiorKility ji.nd environment, 1 
d(.'sire to exf>Iain th;i.t the fi/rures in the column 
rcf)n;s(rnting tfie percenta/^e of Am(;ri<;an f)arentagc 
do not exhaust my data on tlx; subject, but are- in- 
tendefJ to be merely suggestive. Knowing tfic stress 
tfiat is generally laid uf)on tfiesc factors in consid- 
ering results in langu;ig<-, I have mad(,* a ratfier close 
inquiry in rc^urd to their different pliases, and shall 
publish tfi<; d(,'tails later. 

S[>eaking not only from the fig-ures in '^J'n.ble I, 
}>ut also from other fJat;i, ariri from my personal 
knowlerJge of i\u^ schor)ls, my conclusion is tfiat horrx; 
c;nvironment is somewliat of a factor in the matter 
of written lOnglisfj, but f>y no means as important 
a onv. as it is g(;nerally suf)):)osed to be. In its favor, 
I am able; to say tfiat in six of th(^ seven sf;hools 
tfiat have been classefJ as satisfactory, tfie cfiild ren 
are largely from American homes;' and, of tfjr;se 

[' 'I'he fi^riints for tli<r .sevrtrith h<'\\(X)] are not. ^ivftri irj the 
tatWe, t)ut, }ii(lir'ttiif \)y Uie nrifrfiljortiood, I slifjuld nay ttiut ttic 
Arrtftrieari ])ii.n:ri\.!ifs(: was upwarrj f)f HO \»:r ecnt. Under 
American jjarentagf: I fiave cla.ssed those [)iJpiJ.H only whfjsc 

[217] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

six schools, five are distinctly "aristocratic." But 
this point is offset by two others, which are suffi- 
cient to prove that the power to use good English 
in writing may be developed without special home 
culture, and that home culture will not in itself suf- 
fice to lead to the desired end. 

As to the first of these points, it may be said that 
while five of the seven satisfactory schools are of 
the "aristocratic" type, two are not. In the second 
school, 71 per cent of the pupils are of American 
parentage, it is true; but the building is situated 
in a rather poor district, and the home culture is 
certainly not above the average. And the fourth 
school, it will be seen, is very largely foreign, not 
more than 28 per cent of the pupils coming from 
American homes. 

In regard to the second point, it is to be noted 
that the home conditions are at least up to the 
average in the schools that rank tenth, twelfth, four- 
teenth, sixteenth, seventeenth, nineteenth, and twen- 
tieth. And it is of particular interest to note that 
the school in which the American parentage is as 
low as 6 per cent stands ninth, thus outranking 
seven schools attended by pupils whose home advan- 
tages are not inferior to those of the second school 
in the table. 

However, taking all the pros and cons into con- 
sideration, it seems to me that a school attended 



parents were American or English and who heard no foreign 
language at home. If a foreign language was spoken at home, 
I classed the pupils as foreign, even when both parents were 
American.] 



[218] 



THE RESULTS OF A TEST IN LANGUAGE 

largely by children of foreigners is laboring some- 
what at a disadvantage, and that some allowance 
should be made for the handicap; but I think that 
a fair allowance would be 1 per cent in the school 
average for every 10 per cent of foreign parentage. 



[219] 



XI 



ENGLISH (continued). THE NEED OF A NEW BASIS 
IN EDUCATION ^ 

In the preparation of the present chapter, which 
is intended primarily to offer a fundamental ex- 
planation of the fact that some seventy per cent 
of the schools examined in arithmetic and language 
failed to show even a moderate degree of success in 
those branches — which, in the eyes of the general 
public, constitute the corner-stone of a practical 
education — I did not lose sight of the fact that my 
deductions, to be of value, would have to be based 
upon the assurance that the papers in both subjects 
had been accurately marked. As to arithmetic, no 
serious question can be raised from this point of 
view ; but in language my system of computing class 
averages was novel, and I did not feel inclined to 
accept it myself without the closest of critical scru- 
tiny, although from the standpoint of opinions, it 
had been approved by a number of practical edu- 
cators to whom it had been demonstrated before the 
article was published. In brief, as I have acquired 
the habit of judging matters from the standpoint 
of facts, I did not feel justified in looking upon the 
method as sound unless it should be able to with- 
stand a test in the light of facts as well. By the 
^ January-March, 1904. 
[ 220] 



A NEW BASIS IN EDUCATION 

system employed, the individual errors had been 
disregarded, and each paper judged as a unit, solely 
by impression; and the question arose in my mind 
whether the impression made by a paper was, after 
all, a reliable indication of its merit, or whether 
accurate criticism did not demand a careful analysis 
of each paper in the light of actual errors. 

The problem suggested by this question could not 
be contemplated with equanimity. I had already 
read the fourth and fifth grade papers once, and 
the sixth, seventh, and eighth grade papers twice, so 
that I felt no ardent desire to look them over again. 
Besides, the marking of a paper with precision re- 
quires very careful study of every phrase and sen- 
tence, both individually and in relation to the whole ; 
and this means, of course, extremely slow progress. 
Indeed, it was soon found that even a paper that 
read well could not be marked minutely in less than 
fifteen or twenty minutes, while one that read very 
poorly could scarcely be marked in less than an 
hour. Under these circumstances, I was, of course, 
obliged to abandon the idea of putting all the papers 
through the mill. So I did the next best thing 
and selected for examination certain typical sets, 
amounting in all to some 2,000 papers. 

However, in order to enhance the value of the 
work, I appreciated the advisability of not only 
counting the number of errors, but of classifying 
them as well, with a view to pointing out to teachers 
the most frequent sources of error. Therefore, as 
a preliminary to the marking, I decided to com- 
plete a system of classification. With this in mind, 
[221] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

I took in hand paper after paper and noted each 
error as I encountered it. Finally, after consid- 
erable effort, I felt that I had developed a practical 
working basis. The number of classes of errors had 
by that time mounted to ninety-three ; and while this 
number did not by any means cover them all, I be- 
lieved that it would answer the purpose. 

The preliminaries having been completed, the ex- 
amination of the papers was begun. But I had not 
proceeded beyond the marking of twenty composi- 
tions before it became perfectly evident that there 
was no direct relation between the number of errors 
contained in a paper and its literary merit, and 
that, for comparative purposes, the tabulation of 
the number of errors per hundred words would be 
not only absolutely worthless, but altogether mis- 
leading. 

The flaw did not lie in the classification, which 
was perfectly practical as far as it had gone. The 
difficulty was simply due to the fact that the errors 
in the compositions differed very markedly in degree ; 
that some of them were so strikingly bad as ap- 
parently to cover the entire field of vision; that 
others were scarcely noticeable except on careful 
reading or actual analysis ; while, finally, any num- 
ber of expressions were encountered that really called 
for the weight of authority to decide whether they 
should be looked upon as right or wrong. In brief, 
it was found almost at the outset that we cannot 
mark a composition as we mark a paper in spelling 
or arithmetic. In spelling, one error is, for all 
practical purposes, as bad as another, so that, in 
[ 222 ] 



A NEW BASIS IN EDUCATION 

giving a test of fifty words, we simply take off two 
for each misspelled word, and the marking becomes 
automatic. In arithmetic, also, we can agree upon 
a system of grading and follow it automatically. 
But in language it is no exaggeration to say that 
some errors are ten or even twenty times as bad 
as others ; and a system of marking upon a basis 
of actual errors would have to take this fact into 
consideration. The truth is that papers containing 
the same number of errors could vary in degree 
from marked literary merit to veritable rubbish. 

In view of what has been stated, it would be nat- 
ural to suppose that we could be helped out of the 
dilemma by grading the errors in accordance with 
their class. But the fact is that even if such a 
tedious process could be consistently carried out, 
only little would be gained thereby, because errors 
of the same class may also vary markedly in degree. 
While errors of certain varieties are always great, 
those of others are sometimes slight and sometimes 
great, so that mere numbers would here tell us noth- 
ing, because we should not know how many times the 
errors of the latter varieties had been slight and 
how frequently they had been great. Concrete ex- 
amples could be furnished ad libitum; but as it would 
take us too far to enter into details here, I shall 
omit the discussion of this question. 

But comparisons by numbers of errors could not 
really convey the truth even if my ninety-three 
classes should be so minutely subdivided as to permit 
of the tabulation of the exact degree of each flaw. 
This is due to the fact that in language it is neces- 
[223 ] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

sjiry to consider tlic positive us well ;is ilie negative 
side, for the [)osilive side also varies ^iHaily in 
decree. In spelling", words tliat are not wron^* are 
pei'fect. ; and in arif liniel i(', answers that are not 
wron^- are perfect. Jhit, this is not true of lan- 
^iia^-e; for, theoretically, an entire composition iriaj 
he free of (laws and yel, he vei'y poor, while, on i he 
oilier hand, it may contain a mniiher of errors and 
si. ill he exceptionally ^ood. Therefoi-e, in criticising 
a lilerary pro(hiclion on a mathematical scale, it 
would he necessary to note the cre(hts as well as the 
dehils, to st rike a halance, and, finally, to mark the 
[)a|)eis so many points plus or minus, repi'esentin^ 
the surplus or tlie deficit. On the dehit side, there 
would have to he f)()sted the actual numher of errors 
and the decree of each; and on the credit side, we 
should have to post the de^^ree of merit in command 
of lan^ua^-e, sentence construction, (low of la,n^uaf»'e, 
euphony, artistic taste, interpretation of thought, 
logic, clearness of ideas, originality, sentiment, and 
a host of other things. 

In brief, after a long and circuitous course in 
search of a scientific system of marking, I have be- 
come convinced that a composition must, be judged 
as a unit, .just as we judge a picture or any other 
work of art, by impression, and therefore that my 
system of marking was not only j)ermissible for the 
purpose for which it was intended, but that, in |)rin- 
ciple, it stands for the only fair l)asis of com})aris()n. 
C()nse(iuent ly, I feel justified in accef)ting as a })rac- 
tical working basis the })ercentages published in 1 he 
preceding chapter, and in founding upon them the 

[ --'1' J 



A NEW BASIS TN EDUCATION 

deductions concerning the causes of success and of 
failure. 

One other question has been suggested, namely, 
whether my test was such as to bring out the real 
conditions, or whether a different test might not 
have produced different results. As to this, I desire 
to say that while a test of a different nature would 
no doubt result in a different scale of percentages, 
I cannot conceive of a test that would serve to re- 
verse the comparative standing of the schools. It 
has been said that possibly the schools that received 
the high percentages had been doing a great deal of 
reproduction work, while those that failed had been 
laboring on other lines. In answer I need merely 
say that only a moderate amount of reproduction 
work had been done in the former schools, that, in 
fact, but little of it had been done in any of the 
schools above the sixth year. And as to the fact 
that the test called for the first draft, it is interest- 
ing to note that the pupils of the class that did the 
finest work had not been accustomed to present the 
first draft to their teacher, so that the test was no 
less unusual to them than it was to any of the other 
pupils examined. 

As the first draft only was accepted, there is no 
doubt that the test was severe, and that the classes 
that did poorly would have done better if they had 
had an opportunity to revise their copy. However, 
I do not see how this could have affected the relative 
position of the schools. That children who do 
poorly on a severe test are likely to do better on 
an easier one is a reasonable assumption ; but I can- 
[ 225 ] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

not entertain the proposition that pupils who do 
remarkably well on a difficult test are likely to fail 
on an easy one. Moreover, through subsequent visits 
to many of the schools, during which I had an op- 
portunity to interview teachers, I became convinced 
in more ways than one that the best work was done 
by the pupils who had been in the habit of doing the 
best daily work, and that their superior power would 
show on any piece of writing that they should be at 
any time asked to do. 

We are now ready to enter upon the discussion of 
the main theme of this chapter, namely, the reasons 
why the schools, on the whole, failed to make a bet- 
ter showing, and what can be done to improve their 
prospects. 

To call the question of the causes of success or of 
failure in elementary education one of the most im- 
portant of all pedagogical problems would be very 
far short of the truth ; for it is, in fact, the problem 
of problems, embracing them all in one. It involves 
the question of the characteristics of pupils, of the 
individuality, education, and training of teachers, 
of the entire province of supervision, and of school 
organization and administration. And, to gain a 
clear insight into the problem of causes, each of 
these factors must be studied in turn, and its rela- 
tive influence determined. 

In searching through the category of possible 
causes of success in some instances and of failure in 
others, I have found it necessary to exclude one 
plausible theory after another by reason of its 
failure to explain the facts ; but I have finally come 
[226] 



A NEW BASIS IN EDUCATION 

upon a theory that not only seems to hold its own 
when examined in the light of facts, but which ap- 
pears to account for the circumstance that all other 
theories, however plausible, were found to vanish 
when exposed to the light. The theory is simply 
this, that success in teaching, as measured by re- 
sults, is primarily dependent upon something in- 
herent in the teaching, the nature of which will 
become clear as we proceed. 

I have come to this conclusion, because it offers 
a hypothesis which is perfectly capable of explain- 
ing any number of phenomena which, though ap- 
parently incredible, have been strikingly in evidence 
in every subject thus far investigated, playing havoc 
with all our preconceived notions, and casting them 
to the winds. For example, the tables have fur- 
nished an abundance of evidence to prove that there 
is no direct relation between the time devoted to a 
subject and the results; the facts having shown con- 
clusively that certain specified results could be 
obtained within a certain specified limit of time, 
provided a certain unknown element was brought 
into play, but that, in the absence of that element, 
the desired results would not be accomplished even 
if the time should be inordinately increased beyond 
the specified limit. The fact itself was not at first 
startling, because, a priori, it could be accounted 
for in so many ways; but the surprises began to 
accumulate when one common-sense reason after an- 
other was examined and found wanting. 

It has always been supposed that the size of the 
class must necessarily exert a powerful influence 
[227] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

on the results. But investigation showed that there 
was no relation between the size of the class and the 
results, that some of the best work had been done 
in the largest classes, and some of the poorest in 
the smallest classes. It has also been accepted as 
an axiom that the results are largely influenced by 
the heredity, nationality, and home environment of 
the pupils. But in spelling and arithmetic, these 
factors appeared to play a very insignificant part, 
if any; while even in language, where they have 
always been supposed to control the helm, they were 
found to exert an exceedingly small amount of in- 
fluence as compared with that of the magic elixir. 
Nor could the differences in results be accounted 
for by differences in scholarship or in knowledge of 
pedagogical theory, on the part of the teachers, 
because teachers of practically equal qualifications, 
from a theoretical standpoint, produced widely dif- 
ferent results. And after the publication of the 
preceding article, I looked closely into the methods 
employed in teaching English, in the schools that 
I had examined, only to find, however, that among 
teachers using practically identical methods some 
had met with marked success, while others had ut- 
terly failed. In a word, it appears that where the 
desired element is present in sufficient quantity, 
success will be attained in spite of unfavorable con- 
ditions and apparently unscientific methods, and 
that where it falls below a certain minimum, the 
results will be poor, even if the conditions should 
favor the 'teacher, the methods should be of the most 
scientific order, the appointments should be made 
[ 228] 



A NEW BASIS IN EDUCATION 

by merit instead of by pull, and the members of the 
school board should be elected by districts instead 
of by wards. 

The conclusion that the attainment of satisfac- 
tory results is primarily a question of a certain 
specific thing in the teaching appears so extremely 
elementary that my researches might seem to have 
been unnecessary. However, when looked upon in 
the light of my data, it not only overthrows our 
preconceived notions in regard to points already 
enumerated, but it serves to upset certain favorite 
educational doctrines as well. The suggestion that 
the nature of the teaching is the ultimate cause of 
success seems to favor the traditional belief that 
the teacher is born and not made, which, however, 
is controverted by the facts, as I shall presently 
show. But, as we shall see, it also seems to conflict 
with the modern belief that the teacher is made and 
not born, although there is in this respect a delusion. 

The theory that the teacher is born and not made 
is disproved by the fact that the results do not bear 
a direct relation to the native ability of the teachers. 
If native ability were the determining element, we 
should have to find marked irregularity in the re- 
sults obtained in the diiferent class-rooms of the 
same school building, and but little variation in the 
results of different buildings taken as a whole. But, 
in fact, the reverse of this is the case ; for the strik- 
ing differences are not found in the different class- 
rooms of the same building. They do not begin to 
appear until the results of one building are com- 
pared with those of another. This seems to prove 
[229] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

that the teaching faculty is not limited to a favored 
few, but that it is subject to development in normal 
individuals generally, though, of course, in varying 
degree; and that it is developed in some schools, 
while permitted to lie dormant in others. 

What has just been said is, of course, a point 
in favor of those who believe in training. But on 
looking at the facts from their side of the case, we 
find ourselves again perplexed; for, as has been 
already stated, it has been impossible to trace any 
direct relation between professional qualifications, 
as generally understood, and results. It is this that 
points to the delusion, which lies in the fact that 
professional qualifications as generally understood, 
namely, a knowledge of psychology and pedagogy, 
combined with scholarship, do not in themselves con- 
stitute the elements that assure the attainment of 
satisfactory results. Indeed, the fact that a knowl- 
edge of psychology and pedagogy does not make the 
teacher, even when combined with scholarship, is so 
universally appreciated among practical school peo- 
ple that no argument is required to substantiate it. 
Now, if the problem of successful teaching has 
resolved itself into the problem of developing the 
ability to attain results, and if experience has shown 
that the study of psychology and pedagogy, even 
when combined with culture, has not sufficed to bring 
about the desired development, then we cannot avoid 
the conclusion that the methods of development thus 
far employed have not sufficed to accomplish the 
purpose, and that something more must be done 
before training can be made to hit the mark. 
[230] 



A NEW BASIS IN EDUCATION 

And now we are ready for the crucial questions: 
(1) How can we account for the fact that the study 
of the educational sciences has failed to serve the 
purpose? and (2) What is the specific form of train- 
ing required to bring about the desired end? Let 
us consider these questions in turn. 

That the new ideals are not only higher than the 
old, but absolutely fundamental, and must in time 
prevail, is not even open to question; and, strange 
as it may seem, they are the very same ideals up- 
held by the identical public that has always so 
strongly protested against surrendering the schools 
to the educational reformers, namely, greater in- 
telligence and greater efficiency. Consequently, the 
people are not at loggerheads with the new educa- 
tion in the matter of ideals, but they are opposed 
to it because they not only fail to perceive the mani- 
festation of that greater intelligence and greater 
efficiency which the new school has promised to pro- 
duce, but are inclined to believe that the graduates 
of our elementary schools are even less intelligent 
and less efficient than they were under the old 
regime. 

Why, then, has training failed to give a better 
account of itself? My answer is that training has 
failed to produce better results because it has not 
been followed by a specific demand for better re- 
sults. On the contrary, it has been accompanied 
by a mandate to despise results. This has arisen 
from the belief that the results produced by the 
more rational methods of instruction are purely 
spiritual in their nature and incapable of measure- 
[231] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

ment, and, conversely, that results which can be 
demonstrated in any definite manner must have been 
produced by methods that should be avoided. In 
other words, ordinary training has failed because it 
has been founded upon the assumption — not veri- 
fied by experience — namely, that certain forms of 
pedagogical treatment are sure to lead to ideal re- 
sults. The consequence has been that the educators 
of the new school have become accustomed to gauge 
the success of a teacher from the standpoint of what 
she does, while in matters outside of school success 
is measured by what is accomplished. By reason 
of this unpractical stand, the demand has been de- 
veloping in the direction of methods and mannerisms 
which may or may not contribute to success, but 
which in themselves do not constitute success, and 
are not even a gauge of it ; and in the effort to meet 
this demand, the fundamental issue, actual accom- 
plishment, has become entirely submerged. 

Therefore, in accordance with the trend of the 
times, it has become the custom to call a teacher suc- 
cessful if her methods are in the latest style, if her 
manners are pleasant, and if her pupils show an 
interest in the current lesson; while a teacher is 
placed on a lower plane if she does not come up to 
all these requirements. But this position is un- 
tenable. One who makes the impression that she 
is all that a successful teacher ought to be may be 
a successful teacher in fact, or she may be lacking 
in certain essential elements involved in good teach- 
ing, and fail to accomplish much in the end. On 
the other hand, a teacher who does not make a 
[232] 



A NEW BASIS IN EDUCATION 

favorable impression may in fact be a poor teacher, 
but not necessarily so, for she may be possessed 
of just those qualities which are essential to suc- 
cess, and may therefore accomplish far more than 
her more brilliant colleague. 

In view of the above considerations, the answer 
to the second question is obvious. The current 
method of training having failed by reason of a 
false standard of measuring success, the remedy lies 
in substituting for it a more scientific one. The 
current standard calls for an estimate of success 
by what the teacher does, and the one now sug- 
gested will call for judgment by what she accom- 
plishes. Of course, such a radical change in the 
standard would not only carry with it a change 
in demand, but also the necessity of revising our 
conception of pedagogical training, which would 
have to be more definitely directed toward the de- 
velopment of the power to achieve results. But just 
as the demand for an ideal class-room spirit has 
served to bring about a markedly better spirit, so 
the demand for ideal results would undoubtedly be 
followed by better work and start the schools on 
the road to a still higher ideal, namely, the com- 
bination of an ideal spirit with ideal results. 

The theory that success in teaching should be 
judged by results is, of course, anything but a novel 
one ; and in view of the pedagogical abuses to which 
it has led, and the just condemnation it has re- 
ceived at the hands of many, it may seem strange 
that any one should have the hardihood not merely 
to indorse it, but to suggest it as a fundamental 
[ 233 ] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

truth. However, the fact is that we are here again 
brought face to face with a pedagogical proposi- 
tion which is correct in principle, but wliich has 
ended in disaster by reason of a misconception. In 
a word, the traditional system of measuring success 
by results has proved a signal failure, because those 
who have followed it have failed to appreciate that 
results differ widely in quality, that some are of a 
high and others of a low order, in consequence of 
which they have become accustomed to accept as 
satisfactory a class of results which neither indicate 
genuine teaching nor satisfy the demands of an in- 
telligent public. The standard that I am suggest- 
ing represents a demand for results on a much higher 
plane, but recognizes at the same time that such 
results must be based on a firmer foundation than 
faith. 

As to the specific difference between a low and a 
high order of results, this cannot be accurately ex- 
plained in any general statement, for every branch 
must be considered on its own merits. However, 
taking a broad view of the matter, it may be said 
that in the former the dominant idea is knowledge, 
knowledge of facts and of certain formal processes, 
while in the latter it is efficiency, the ability to think 
and to iitlh'ze knowledge in thought and execution. 
As knowledge is a matter of memory, and can be 
acquired without bringing into play, to any consid- 
erable extent, the exercise of the higher mental 
faculties, it so happens that up to a certain point 
a great deal may be accomplished simply by getting 
pupils to study their lessons and to be attentive 
[ 234 ] 



A NEW BASIS IN EDUCATION 

during the recitations. Consequently, it is evident 
that, within a given compass, children who have but 
slightly exercised their higher mental faculties may 
be able to compete on an equal footing with those 
who for years have had the more genuine forms of 
mental training. However, if we recognize that, 
within certain limits, children who have had no 
genuine teaching are able to compete with those who 
have been very well taught, we must also recognize 
that when these limits have been reached the con- 
trast between good and poor teaching will begin 
to tell in the results. 

This suggests in a nutshell both the flaw and the 
remedy. The trouble with the traditional standards 
has been that they have aimed to measure success 
within the limits of the lower area; and the remedy 
lies in instituting standards that will take as their 
starting-point the upper limit of the lower area. 
That is to say, the higher order of standards, ideally 
speaking, will give no credits for mechanical results, 
but simply for such results as show a true indication 
of intelligence and efficiency. Tests formulated upon 
the higher basis will, however, by no means over- 
look essential facts and processes of a mechanical 
order, because pupils must necessarily be thoroughly 
grounded in the fundamentals to be able to pass 
the higher tests. As children have brains, they can- 
not, of course, help acquiring some efficiency as a 
result of the acquisition of knowledge, however 
poorly they may be taught; so that in testing for 
efficiency a part of the credit for that which is 
manifested will belong to the pupils. Nevertheless, 
[ 235 ] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

my investigations have brought to light the fact 
that children do not acquire much of it unaided, but 
that it is primarily a matter of training; for other- 
wise the tremendous differences in the results ob- 
tained in different schools could not have occurred. 

As every subject presents its own peculiarities 
and must be considered on its own merits, it would 
be a mere assumption on my part to state in how 
many of the common school branches the line of dis- 
crimination between the higher and the lower order 
of results could be safely drawn. However, I am 
able to say, and I shall illustrate the fact, that the 
line may be rather clearly drawn in the two sub- 
jects which not only consume much of the time spent 
in school, but which count for so much in practical 
affairs that the reformer may reform to his heart's 
content if he will but do his duty here. They are: 
(1) arithmetic, which is a world in itself; and (2) 
language, which includes so many things in one. At 
the outset, I did not anticipate that much could 
be done with the inductive work beyond the domain 
of the three R's ; and to what extent other branches 
could be brought within its range and within that 
of its logical outcome is still an open question. 

The proposition that intellectual strength is sub- 
ject to measurement suggests the inductive study 
not only of educational results, but of that funda- 
mental educational problem which is so largely in- 
strumental in shaping the curriculum itself, and not 
only the curriculum of the elementary school, but 
that of the higher institutions as well, namely, the 
problem of the relative values of different subjects 
[236] 



A NEW BASIS IN EDUCATION 

from the standpoint of mental discipline. If intel- 
lectual strength is the resultant of a combination 
of artificial stimuli of different varieties, and such 
strength is subject to measurement, then it becomes, 
so to saj, a simple problem in dynamics to deter- 
mine the degree of influence exerted by the individual 
stimuli, and consequently their relative values. Hav- 
ing made no special investigation touching upon this 
point, I have no reliable facts to offer. However, 
it is interesting to note that the data incidentally 
obtained during my tests in arithmetic and English 
appear to indicate that of the two subjects that 
tradition has handed down as mental trainers par 
excellence, arithmetic and grammar, arithmetic 
merits the position it has won, while grammar does 
not. This statement is based upon the fact that all 
the schools in which the pupils had displayed a 
high degree of intelligence in arithmetic also pro- 
duced very creditable work in that great intellectual 
barometer, English composition, while composition 
was frequently at a very low ebb where the pupils 
were apparently well versed in grammar. This in- 
formation is not offered in the nature of a conclusion, 
but simply as suggesting an entering wedge into the 
study of a different problem. 

Having found that, from a practical standpoint, 
genuine educational progress means neither more 
nor less than the development of a higher order 
of measurable results, the practical pedagogical 
problem becomes resolved into that of devising ways 
and means destined to lead to this much-desired end ; 
and it is to the matter of ways and means that I 
[237] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

shall now direct attention. However, owing to the 
magnitude of the subject, I shall not attempt to 
enter into its innumerable ramifications, but shall 
confine my remarks to a few statements concerning 
the two fundamental conditions of success: (1) A 
well-defined, but reasonable, minimum demand, based, 
first, upon a clear conception of the ideal end, and, 
secondly, upon a knowledge of what a fairly good 
teacher is able to accomplish in the desired direc- 
tion; and (2) a clearly defined method of judging 
to what extent each teacher is meeting that demand. 
Expressing these ideas in homely phraseology, we 
have the simple proposition that the essential con- 
ditions of success in pedagogy, as elsewhere, are to 
know what you want and to see that you get it. 

Up to the present time, the new school of educa- 
tion has not had more than a general conception 
of what results it really desires to attain, and con- 
sequently has not had even a foundation upon which 
to base a specific demand in the light of the new 
ideals. Therefore, the accusation that the modern 
school is trying to destroy the good in the old with- 
out putting anything definite in its place is not 
altogether unwarranted. That the traditional de- 
mands have led to all sorts of pedagogical abuses 
cannot be doubted; but this does not justify the as- 
sumption that pedagogical demands are wrong in 
principle. The law of demand and supply is funda- 
mental and cannot be argued out of existence; and 
what is needed to insure progress is not the destruc- 
tion of a much- abused fundamental principle, but 
a detailed specification of what results may be ex- 
[ 238 ] 



A NEW BASIS IN EDUCATION 

pected, from grade to grade, in the march toward 
the ideal goals, and the development of demands in 
accordance with what experience has proved to be 
feasible. 

Let us now see in what particulars the new ideals 
differ from the old, and how the demands may be 
changed to keep pace with them. 

In touching upon this point, I stated that, gen- 
erally speaking, the lower results were represented 
by knowledge and the higher results by efficiency. 
But, with a view to the practical, the same idea 
may be more readily appreciated if we accept as a 
basis that the higher results in any given branch 
are represented by the realization of the purpose 
for which it is taught, while the lower results are 
represented by the knowledge and skill acquired on 
the road to the higher end. Therefore, the higher 
demand in each individual subject must be based, 
fundamentally, upon a clear conception of its pur- 
pose, and the minimum demand upon the extent to 
which that purpose can be realized, from grade to 
grade, by fairly efficient teachers, laboring under 
ordinary conditions. As the difference between me- 
chanical and ideal results was very clearly demon- 
strated by my tests in arithmetic and language, it 
may be of interest to take these subjects as illus- 
trations. 

In arithmetic the purpose is clear. It is, so to* 
say, to get the children to understand the relation 
of numbers and how to combine them. In order to 
arrive at this end, it is necessary to acquire a 
knowledge of a large number of processes and prin- 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

ciples, and to learn how to apply that knowledge 
through practice in concrete problems. Now a test 
at the end of a given period may have one of two 
things in view. Its object may be to discover how 
well the pupils are conversant with the processes 
and principles they have studied, and whether they 
have acquired facility in the solution of problems 
in line with those in which they have been drilled ; 
or its object may be to learn to what extent the 
pupils have acquired the ability to apply their 
knowledge of processes and principles in the solution 
of varieties of problems in which they have not been 
drilled. The former represents a memory test, in 
which poorly taught children are able to compete 
with those who have had the benefit of genuine teach- 
ing, while the latter is a test of the power to reason, 
and should result in a victory for the superior 
teaching. 

Now my own test in arithmetic was so formulated 
as to give no credit whatever for a knowledge of 
processes and principles, nor did it take into ac- 
count what kind of problems had received particular 
attention in individual schools. It simply consisted 
of a series of problems coming within the scope of 
all the pupils, but making a knowledge of the funda- 
mentals indispensable to success. This test not only 
brought to light an enormous difference in arithmet- 
ical ability in different schools, but also the fact that 
this difference increased with the ascent of the 
grades, until in the eighth year the results varied 
almost from zero to perfection, the extremes in the 
[240] 



A NEW BASIS IN EDUCATION 

class averages being 11.3 and 93.9 per cent, re- 
spectively. This indicates that the effect of train- 
ing the reasoning faculties is cumulative, that under 
its influence much ability may be developed during 
the elementary school period, and that in the schools 
where reliance is placed mainly on the memory, 
the reasoning faculties fail to react when confronted 
by a test of any degree of severity. In truth, in a 
few of the schools, the problems whose formulae had 
not been studied might almost as well have been pre- 
sented in Greek. 

But what is perhaps more surprising still is the 
fact that, in the schools that utterly collapsed on 
my test, there had never been even a suspicion of 
weakness, for the teachers here as elsewhere had 
been accustomed to obtain class averages of eighty 
to ninety per cent on tests that they or their super- 
intendents had formulated. In the light of what I 
have stated, the discrepancy is easily explained: 
Their home-made tests were memory tests, and the 
pupils had become accustomed to work arithmetic 
by formula; while in the schools where true ability 
was demonstrated, the home-made tests were tests 
of ability, and the children had become accustomed 
to work arithmetic by the aid of their reasoning 
faculties. The new ideals call for the development 
of the power to think, and the new demands must 
follow on the same line. And it seems to me that 
in formulating tests in accordance with the new 
ideals, we should be guided as far as possible by 
the principle of calling upon the pupils to do things 
[241 ] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

that thej have never done before, in contradistinc- 
tion to the old rule not to ask them to do what they 
have not been directly taught to do. 

When we turn our attention from arithmetic to 
language, we encounter a far different kind of prob- 
lem ; for arithmetic has but a single purpose, while 
language has a multiplicity of purposes, the most 
prominent among which are: (1) The study of the 
structure of language (technical grammar) ; (2) 
the development of the ability to interpret thought ; 
and (3) the development of the ability to express 
ideas in correct and readable English. 

That language has more purposes than one has 
been thoroughly understood from time immemorial; 
but what has not been recognized in practice is the 
fact that its different phases, though members of 
the same family and mutually helpful, are separate 
entities ; that they must be developed on independent 
lines; that one of them cannot be accepted as a 
substitute for another; that we have no right to 
assume that one of them can be developed through 
exercise in another; and that the degree of develop- 
ment of one cannot be estimated by the degree of 
development of another. 

It would be foreign to my purpose to enter into 
a discussion concerning the relative value of the 
different phases of language work from an academic 
point of view. However, speaking from the popular 
standpoint, it is perfectly safe to say not only that 
written English takes the first rank in language, 
but that the development of the ability to write 
ranks first among all subjects taught in the ele- 
[242 ] 



A NEW BASIS IN EDUCATION 

mentary school. As the power to express one's 
thoughts in correct and readable language has not 
been exalted by our own people alone, but by those 
of other countries as well, the idea cannot be looked 
upon as a mere fad, but must rest upon a real basis 
of some kind or another. And that basis, it seems 
to me, is not that the people desire to fit their 
children for a literary career, but the fact that 
written language constitutes the only popular means 
of judging what the elementary school is doing for 
the child. Nor is this view to be stamped as narrow ; 
for even in the highest educational circles the feel- 
ing has been developing that written language is 
not merely what it stands for in the elementary 
school curriculum — one-third of one of a dozen 
branches — but that it is largely representative of 
the character of the training that the child has 
received as a whole; that it is a general manifesta- 
tion not only of knowledge of English, but of knowl- 
edge in general, and not only of knowledge, but of 
thought power, logic, understanding, taste, senti- 
ment, precision, and so on; that it is, in fact, as I 
have already expressed it, the barometer of ele- 
mentary education; and to the extent to which that 
barometer rises will rise the confidence in our 
educators. 

But the popular demand for improvement in ex- 
pression does not run counter to the new ideals. 
On the contrary, the development of the art of ex- 
pression is a cardinal principle in the new education ; 
and this has been manifested in practice by the 
fact that the most attention has been given to ex- 
[ 243 ] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

pression — not only in the manual arts, but in Eng- 
lish as well — in the schools in charge of the most 
radical educators. In consequence of this attitude 
toward English on the part of progressive educators, 
and in view of the fact that the general educational 
trend is progressive, composition, in its various 
phases, has been for many years prosecuted with 
vigor in some communities, and has received a fair 
amount of attention in most of the others ; and still 
the people continue to complain, not without justice, 
that the English in our schools is lamentably weak. 

But why has this increase in effort failed to lead 
to a more decided improvement.? This again may 
be explained by the fact that the higher ideal has 
not been accompanied by a specific demand for bet- 
ter results. In truth, the initial steps have not yet 
been taken to arrive at a basis upon which a higher 
demand could be formulated. Before we can make 
a genuine effort to get what we want, we must, in 
the first instance, know what we want, and we must 
also know how much we can get. But in written 
language no one is able to express in terms what 
we have had, or what we have now, or what we can 
get, as no attempt has ever been made — except, 
perhaps, the test upon which this chapter is based 
— to make out a statement of the actual conditions. 

And how may this lack of definiteness be ac- 
counted for? The explanation here also is near 
at hand. The radical educators have not even at- 
tempted to develop any standards, because they do 
not believe that efficiency can be demonstrated by 
means of tests. True to their creed, they have 
[ 244 ] 



A NEW BASIS IN EDUCATION 

simply adhered to the motto that we learn to do 
by doing, and have forged ahead confident in the 
belief that their methods would make it all right 
in the end. 

But if the radicals have done nothing in this 
direction, those who have retained their faith in 
measurable results have done even worse than noth- 
ing, for they have actually stood in the way of the 
development of genuine standards by laboring under 
artificial and spurious ones, which are not only too 
low, but positively deluding. They have gradually 
come to recognize, it is true, that the art of ex- 
pression must be fostered in school; but they have 
made the great mistake of overlooking the fact that 
the development of the power of expression does not 
simply represent a new chapter in an old and 
familiar book, but a new and independent subject, 
which must follow a course of its own. 

As a result of this error, the introduction of the 
art of expression into the curriculum has not been 
followed by an independent demand for the develop- 
ment of the power of expression, but has simply been 
treated in the light of another addition to technical 
grammar. The truth of this assertion is illustrated 
by the fact that the typical examination paper in 
English to-day represents a mixture of everything 
that is known inside of the school as "language," 
of which the art of expression is one. And what is 
wrong with this.? Nothing beyond the fact that 
under an arrangement of this kind it is possible to 
roll up class averages of eighty to ninety per cent 
in language where the art of expression — or lan- 
[245 ] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

guage as the term is commonly understood outside 
of school — is in a most deplorable state. This was 
abundantly demonstrated by my own test, which, 
as a pure and simple test of the power of expression, 
caused the utter collapse of all structures that had 
been artificially propped up by technical grammar 
and all kinds of devices under the sun. 

I do not wish to be understood by this as casting 
a vote against the study of technical grammar in 
the elementary school. Indeed, I do not see how 
the teacher can guide her pupils in their composi- 
tion work without a reference to grammar. But 
I do wish to impress the fact that grammar — i.e., 
from the standpoint of composition — is merely one 
of any number of forces that aid in the develop- 
ment of the power of expression, and cannot be 
looked upon as a substitute for, or a gauge of, the 
ability to write. And what is true of grammar, 
from this particular point of view, is equally true 
of everything else included under language in the 
elementary school course. In a word, the only test 
of the power of expression is a test of the power 
of expression, and, in the interest of progress in 
practical English, composition should be examined 
as a thing apart. 

But this does not mean that composition is from 
this time on to run riot in our schools. In fact, 
if I had the say in the matter, I should not set aside 
any more time for language in toto than is now 
devoted to it. Nor is any fault to be found with 
the ways and means at present employed by our 
most successful teachers, which are deserving of 
[246] 



A NEW BASIS IN EDUCATION 

detailed discussion. The sum and substance of the 
matter is this, that satisfactory results in the art 
of expression can be obtained by devoting not more 
than forty-five to fifty minutes a day to language, 
including everything now taught under that cap- 
tion, and that failure to produce a certain minimum 
of ability within that limit of time must be attributed 
to a weakness in the teaching — not necessarily in 
the teaching of English alone, but possibly in the 
whole round of teaching. 

Space will not permit me to continue this line 
of discussion into other elementary-school branches ; 
but I shall show in closing that, as in arithmetic 
and language, so in the training of teachers, the 
shortcomings have been due to a failure to discrim- 
inate between knowledge and efficiency, and a con- 
fusion of means and ends. In a word, the mistake 
has here been made of accepting a knowledge of 
psychology and pedagogy, which must be classed 
among the means to the end, as the equivalent of 
the ability to teach, which is the real end of train- 
ing. Psychology and pedagogy do not in themselves 
constitute more than mere memory studies, so that 
they come within the domain of that lower area in 
which the weakest may meet the strongest on the 
same footing, a circumstance which renders pos- 
sible a condition similar to that which was found in 
arithmetic and language, namely, ninety per cent 
in knowledge of pedagogy and ten per cent in the 
ability to teach. 

If we recognize that the supreme end of pedagogy 
is the development of the power to teach, or the 
[247] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

power to develop power in the pupil, and that this 
power must be regarded as the one specific energy 
capable of driving the educational wheels, then we 
must look upon the knowledge possessed by the 
teacher, whether of psychology, pedagogy, history, 
literature, or what not, merely as her store of raw 
material, in which the energy is pent up in a latent 
state. Under these circumstances, the problem of 
training becomes simply the problem of developing 
the greatest amount of energy out of a given amount 
of raw material. And the keynote to development 
is exactly the same in the mental as it has been in 
the physical world. In the latter, progress has been 
brought about by overcoming the difficulties of one 
task and following that task with a more difficult one, 
and so on, until the apparently impossible of half a 
century ago has come to be mere child's play to- 
day. In education, to begin with, it would simply 
be necessary to see that the school in our block shall 
develop as much power in its pupils as is developed 
in the school around the corner, and next to see 
that the school around the corner shall develop as 
much power as the school across the river, etc., etc. 
However, continuous progress in education can- 
not be secured through manufactured laws of 
teaching, any more than progress in engineering 
can be brought about through manufactured laws 
of physics, but depends, first, upon the recognition 
of a law of nature, which must be accepted as a 
common basis of calculation, namely, the capacity 
of the human mind to develop power, and, secondly, 
upon an advance in the minimum demand to keep 
[248] 



A NEW BASIS IN EDUCATION 

pace with our ability to eliminate waste, i.e., with 
our ability to generate more and more power with a 
given amount of raw material. But what can be 
secured through man-made laws, in any locality to- 
day, at a moment's notice, and by a trifling addi- 
tional expense, is a system of supervision based upon 
the recognition of the fundamental law. What such 
a system implies will be discussed in the next chapter. 



[249] 



xn 



In the preceding chapter, I pointed out that the 
marked variations in the results obtained in different 
schools upon my tests in arithmetic and language 
could not be explained by the causes to which they 
might naturally be supposed to be due, such as dif- 
ferences in the general and professional education 
of the teachers, in the conditions under which they 
were obliged to labor, in the methods employed, and 
so on, but that, in the ultimate analysis, they could 
only be accounted for on the supposition of a differ- 
ence in the degree of something inherent in the na- 
ture of the teaching, as this alone appeared com- 
petent to explain the fact that in the schools in 
which the conditions were favorable, both in regard 
to the home environment of the pupils and the pro- 
fessional education of the teachers, the results were 
sometimes extremely low, while in the schools in 
which the conditions were very unfavorable, the 
results were sometimes comparatively high. Again, 
owing to the fact that the striking differences in 
the degree of success did not appear in the different 
class-rooms of the same building, but only when the 
work of a building as a whole was compared with 
^April-June, 1904. 
[250] 



A NEW BASIS IN SUPERVISION 

that of another, I contended that the power to 
teach was not born with the individual, but was 
largely a matter of development, and could be de- 
veloped, to a greater or lesser extent, in the ma- 
jority of normally constituted people, not, however, 
by our present normal-school training, which was 
merely a preparatory affair, but by means of cer- 
tain special agencies. And if this conclusion is cor- 
rect, it is evident that no system of school admin- 
istration, however ideal it may appear on paper, 
and however worthy the officials may be, will suc- 
ceed in effecting substantial and permanent improve- 
ment unless the designated factor is duly recognized 
and made the basis of action. 

In my opinion, the most striking feature in refer- 
ence to my tests is a fact which cannot be argued 
out of existence, namely, that the marked variations 
in the results were not found in the different class- 
rooms of the same building, but in the different build- 
ings taken as a whole. While in regard to the 
causes of this phenomenon it is not safe to make 
dogmatic statements, the conclusion is nevertheless 
near at hand that the most important element in the 
attainment of results lies in something that is in- 
herent in the make-up of the principal, whether this 
be actual superiority in the training of his teachers, 
or sufficient modesty to give free rein to those who 
are stronger than himself, and permitting these to 
exert their good influence on the other members of 
the corps. However this may be, there is no doubt 
that, within considerable limits, the standards of 
efficiency are set by something inherent in the in- 
[251] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

dividual schools, regardless of what system of super- 
vision may prevail. 

Since the publication of the preceding article, I 
have been asked by a number of readers to give a 
more detailed explanation of the nature of what I 
understand by teaching power. In reply, I regret to 
be obliged to report that I have not yet been able 
to solve the mystery of mental faculties, so that 
I must avail myself of the usual privilege of 
defining a power in terms of effect. It is evident, 
for example, that the genuine painter possesses a 
power which the bungler at art does not possess. 
However, the existence of a specific difference be- 
tween them cannot be discovered by studying the 
differences in their personality and education, or in 
their methods and habits of work, but is brought 
to light in one way only, namely, by the difference 
in the quality of their productions, the paintings 
of the one being works of art, while those of the 
other are daubs. Again, it is very well known that 
one person can sell more goods in an hour than an- 
other can sell in a week ; but the great difference 
in their degree of selling power cannot be judged 
by a difference in their knowledge of the goods they 
sell, or in the amount of energy they put into their 
work, but is made manifest only by the difference 
in the value of their orders. 

Now, if we know of the existence of such forces 
as color power, perspective power, tone power, buy- 
ing power, selling power, managing power, and so 
on, the nature of which cannot be defined, but whose 
presence, in an infinite variety of forms and degrees, 
[ 252 ] 



A NEW BASIS IN SUPERVISION 

can only be detected through actual achievement, 
why have we not the right to assume that there is 
also such a thing as teaching power, in itself elud- 
ing analysis, but whose presence, in greater or lesser 
degree, and in one form or another, can only be de- 
tected in the effect produced? 

If, then, we abandon the attempt to define teach- 
ing power as such, and speak of it only in terms of 
effect, we must call it the power to achieve success 
in the school-room, the power to produce a specific 
effect in the pupil. Now, simple as this proposition 
may appear, it stands in truth for nothing less than 
a complete transformation in our attitude toward 
the problem of the elementary school, shifting, as 
it does, our attention from the teacher to the pupil, 
and making the latter instead of the former, from 
the standpoint of practical pedagogy/, the central 
figure in our educational system. 

Thus, it means that while heretofore the efficiency 
of a teacher has been estimated primarily by her 
general and professional knowledge, the size of her 
conscience, her educational ideals, her methods, the 
amount of time devoted to her work outside of school 
hours, and so on, it must hereafter be read in the 
powers of the pupil, just as the power of a painter 
must be read in the canvas. And, in the same way, 
the amount of power possessed by a principal for 
his particular calling must be no longer estimated 
by the amount of experience he has had as a teacher, 
the number of degrees he holds, or his general in- 
terest in education, but by the proportion of his 
teachers who manifest a genuine ability to teach. 
[253 ] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

Again, in the case of teachers of special subjects, the 
fitness for a particular line of work must be no 
longer determined by the number of special courses 
they have taken, but by the degree of success at- 
tained in teaching those particular subjects. I de- 
sire to say here, in passing, that I could point to 
certain class-room teachers of very limited educa- 
tion who have taught English more successfully than 
certain others who have fitted themselves especially 
as teachers of English. 

If we accept the proposition that teaching power 
is the power to achieve success in school work, it 
will be necessary, before proceeding, to define the 
term success; and from my point of view successful 
teaching is represented by the development of not 
less than a certain minimum of intelligence and effi- 
ciency in the pupils. This, of course, commits me 
to the stand that the school is primarily an insti- 
tution of learning, or, rather, an institution for the 
training of the mind and the hand, which is evidently 
out of harmony with the doctrines of large num- 
bers of present-day educators, who are apparently 
firmly pledged to the stand that the school is in- 
tended primarily as an institution for the training 
of character, while learning is only of secondary im- 
portance. Therefore, in a great many quarters, the 
suggestion that the efficiency of a school must be 
gauged, in the first instance, by the intelligence and 
efficiency of the pupils will be looked upon as en- 
tirely too realistic, and forthwith ruled out of court. 
To prove that I am in earnest, I need only call 
attention to the fact that no topic is more widely 
[254 ] 



A NEW BASIS IN SUPERVISION 

discussed in educational circles to-day than that 
concerning the ways and means of estimating the 
efficiency of a teacher, and to the further fact that, 
while all sorts of methods are suggested, few who 
value their reputations seem to have the courage 
to say that the efficiency of a teacher must be judged 
by what her pupils can do. 

In stating my standpoint upon this question, I do 
not wish to be understood as implying that charac- 
ter development lies altogether beyond the province 
of the elementary school. In fact, if I could be 
convinced that the moral influence of teachers was 
inversely proportionate to their strength, that 
strong teaching tended to repress the good and de- 
velop the bad instinct of the child, while weak teach- 
ing did the reverse, then I should be ready to be 
converted. But in the absence of evidence to this 
effect, I shall continue to believe that weakness in 
the tangible work of individual schools must not 
be pardoned on the ground that these are laboring 
for the improvement of mankind and not for results 
that are subject to demonstration, when they are 
really doing nothing toward the development of the 
morals which is not commonly done in the schools. 
In a word, I believe that character development as 
a supplement to efficiency cannot be too warmly 
endorsed, but that character development as a sub- 
stitute for efficiency cannot be too strongly de- 
nounced. 

Proceeding, then, upon the assumption that suc- 
cess in teaching is represented by the development 
of not less than a specified minimum of intelligence 
[ 255 ] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

and efficiency in the pupils, our problem becomes 
resolved into three fundamental issues, which will 
now be discussed in turn: 

1. The selection of an educational aim capable 
of furnishing a theoretical basis for the development 
of reasonable and intelligible minimum standards. 

2. The application of the theory in practice ; and 

3. The ways and means of enforcing the minimum 
when it has been developed. 

1. Bearing in mind that success is dependent upon 
power, the aim, to be of practical value, must be one 
that is capable of stimulating the kind of effort 
which is destined to lead to the development of 
power. For this reason it must be neither too low 
nor too high. If it be too low, it will fail to stimu- 
late effort, because no special power will be required 
to meet the minimum demand. And if it be placed 
so high as to be altogether beyond the teacher's 
reach, then it will equally fail to stimulate effort, 
because there is no object in exerting one's self in 
trying to grasp the unattainable. The former 
would be represented by an aim looking no higher 
than what is known as formalism ; and the latter by 
such abstract conceptions as "the harmonious de- 
velopment of all the faculties," "the development of 
an ideal citizen," and so on, which seem to have no 
particular value beyond furnishing a basis for the 
manufacture of words, with which pedagogy is so 
elaborately and handsomely adorned. I therefore 
beg leave to submit an aim which, while keeping us 
rooted to terra firma, has the double advantage of 
offering the widest possible scope to those who de- 
[256] 



A NEW BASIS IN SUPERVISION 

sire to expand, and of compelling those to exert 
themselves who will not move without compulsion. 
It may be summarized in two propositions, a the- 
oretical and a practical one: (1) That the general 
aim of elementary education shall be to develop the 
higher faculties of the child to the full extent to 
which they are capable of development in the ele- 
mentary school; and (2) That the actual achieve- 
ment of every school shall be made to bear a reason- 
able relation to its possible achievement. 

One who gives but a cursory glance at these two 
propositions may see in them nothing more than 
the familiar strains of a hackneyed melody. The 
truth is, however, that they recognize as the very 
foundation of elementary education, as the sine qua 
non of success and of progress, two elements which 
thus far have been entirely overlooked: (1) The pos- 
sibilities of elementary education, i.e., the extent to 
which it is possible to develop the various powers of 
the child under the limitations by which our ele- 
mentary schools are governed; and (2) the neces- 
sity of taking steps to see that all children receive 
an education whose degree of excellence shall, at 
least in some measure, approach to the best that can 
be given to them. 

The suggested basis, it seems to me, is both fair 
and practical. It is fair to the teachers in that 
it does not expect them to accomplish anything un- 
reasonable. It is fair to the children in that it 
guards their interests to the extent of assuring to 
all a due reward for their time and effort ; thus pro- 
tecting them from the probability, as at present, of 
[257] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

being consigned to schools where their most earnest 
efforts will be rewarded by the most meagre return. 
And it is practical in that it indulges in no idle 
dream, but simply demands that all schools labor- 
ing under certain conditions shall approach in de- 
gree of excellence the standards maintained in the 
moderately successful schools laboring under similar 
conditions. It does not ask, for example, that 
schools in the slums, attended by the children of 
foreigners, with unfavorable home surroundings, 
shall turn out work equal to that produced in schools 
attended by children from cultured American homes. 
It simply asks that all schools attended largely by 
children whose homes are poor shall in some measure 
approach the standards maintained in the strongest 
of them; and that all schools attended largely by 
children from cultured homes shall approach in ex- 
cellence the standards maintained in the best of 
these, and so on. 

Up to the present time, no steps have ever been 
taken to bring about an equal distribution of favors 
by means of a specific demand for the maintenance 
of reasonable standards in all the schools ; and, in 
consequence, these institutions have been permitted 
to drift so far apart that, barring exceptional chil- 
dren, the weakest pupils in the strongest schools 
may be found, grade for grade, to be practically 
equal in efficiency to the strongest pupils in the 
weakest schools. That conditions of this nature are 
not characteristic of any particular type of educa- 
tion, but are as likely to occur under the modern as 
[258] 



A NEW BASIS IN SUPERVISION 

they are under the antiquated system, may be made 
clear by a brief explanation. 

Under the traditional system, the conditions of 
uniform success are lacking because there is no de- 
mand for a high order of teaching. This system, it 
is true, has always recognized the need of working 
for results, and for this reason has never departed 
from the custom of submitting the schools to uni- 
form examinations. But the weakness has lain in 
the character of the questions, which have not been 
prepared from the standpoint of the best that can 
be done for the child, but from that of the limita- 
tions of the weaker pupils of the weaker teachers. 
Thus, here the standards, if such they may be called, 
are far too low, so low, indeed, that schools may be 
passed as satisfactory even if bordering on de- 
moralization. 

Even in communities where the standards are low, 
the possibility of finding strong schools is by no 
means excluded, because principals who are nat- 
urally strong and zealous may far transcend the 
local conditions. But the demand being low, the 
general average is likely to be low, and some schools 
may lapse into a really pitiable condition. Under 
such a system, the difference, in the same locality, 
between a school good enough to pass and one in 
charge of an exceptionally strong principal may be 
nearly as great as the difference between the strong- 
est and the weakest school in the country. In fact, 
in the United States, there is nothing to prevent us 
from finding so great a difference between two 
schools in neighboring districts, almost within hail- 
[259] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

ing distance of each other. And the system for 
which I contend means simply such a change in 
conditions that the standards will be set by the 
strongest instead of the weakest schools, and that, 
in due course of time, no school will be passed as 
satisfactory whose results do not in some measure 
approximate those obtained in the most successful 
schools. 

Now, admitting what I have said to be true of 
the traditional system, are we warranted in bring- 
ing the same charge against the schools conducted 
on modern lines, in which the doctrine of develop- 
ment is accepted as the keynote of all education? 
My answer must be decidedly in the affirmative; for 
while it cannot be denied that the ideals of the new 
education are very much higher than those of the 
old and call for a much higher order of teaching, 
it is no less true that, owing to a strange delusion, 
the educators of the modern school have failed to see 
the necessity of leading their teachers so to increase 
their power as to be able to meet the higher require- 
ments. In a word, they have taken the delusive 
stand that the strength of a teacher is determined 
entirely by what she knows and how she teaches, 
and that if she knows certain things, and teaches in 
certain ways, she must, for that reason, be looked 
upon as an able teacher, even if her pupils should 
fail to give evidence of special ability in any direc- 
tion. From this has arisen the doctrine that a 
teacher's success cannot be estimated by results, and 
that, in consequence, all uniform examinations should 
be abolished and all teachers should be relieved of 
[260] 



A NEW BASIS IN SUPERVISION 

the responsibility of accomplishing anything that is 
directly subject to demonstration. 

Thus, if the traditional system is characterized 
by mechanical aims and meagre requirements, the 
modern system may be said to be characterized by 
high ideals and no requirements. In practice, this 
means that the advantages of the higher ideals of 
the new education have been offset by the disadvan- 
tages of an absence of specific demands, so that while 
in systems with low ideals there is nothing to pre- 
vent efficient workers from doing much better than 
they are required to do, in systems with high ideals, 
on the other hand, there is nothing to prevent ineffi- 
cient workers from doing much worse than they 
ought to do. Consequently, in testing for results, 
we are apt to find in either case schools ranging 
from a very high to a very low grade of achievement. 

Whether the modern educators are right in their 
claim that the children learn a great deal more in 
the schools where the teachers are not held respon- 
sible for results than they do in the schools where 
they are, or whether the people are right in contend- 
ing that they learn a great deal less, is not ma- 
terial. The point at issue is the fact that both 
systems are characterized by the absence of any 
special obligation on the part of a principal to exert 
himself; so that under either condition the benefit 
of development in any way commensurate with nat- 
ural endowment is reserved for those children whose 
parents, by some lucky chance, happen to reside near 
a building in charge of a principal who has the 
ability and the inclination to maintain a good school, 
[261] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

while all other children are obliged to accept less, 
and some of them a great deal less, than they have a 
right to expect. 

In view of what I have stated, it seems to me that 
no educational work can now compare in importance 
with endeavors to improve our weak and demoralized 
schools until they shall at least achieve what one- 
third of our schools are already accomplishing. 
This, of course, does not indicate that, in my opin- 
ion, our stronger schools are now entitled to rest 
on their laurels. The fact is that even these are 
studded with weak spots whose elimination is much 
to be desired. However, we may rest assured that a 
system of administration which should leave no stone 
unturned in endeavoring to elevate our weakest 
schools to the present standard of our strongest 
ones would act as a stimulus upon the latter as well, 
so that by the time the weaker ones had reached the 
goal now set for them, the strongest would have 
already traveled far beyond, and thus have set a 
new pace for those who were attempting to reach 
them. 

It must be said at this point that, in estimating 
the comparative strength of schools upon a basis 
of results, due regard must be had for the relative 
importance of different subjects, and that a wise 
discrimination would have to be made in the allot- 
ment of credits, so that faddists would be prevented 
from concentrating their attention upon the less im- 
portant subjects to the detriment of the more im- 
portant ones. Here it will no doubt be said that 
such an arrangement is not feasible, because educa- 
[262] 



A NEW BASIS IN SUPERVISION 

tors do not agree, and perhaps never will agree, upon 
the question of relative values. To this I reply that 
the schools do not belong to the educators, but to 
the people, and that upon the question of relative 
values the people do not disagree at all, but are 
now, as they have always been, practically unani- 
mous in the assertion that the most important sub- 
jects in the curriculum are language, spelling, pen- 
manship, and arithmetic. 

Now as long as the people own the schools, and the 
educators are simply salaried officers, there is rea- 
son why the will of the people should prevail even 
if their standpoint should be altogether wrong. But 
that no one can say dogmatically that it is alto- 
gether wrong is proved alone by the fact that a 
great many reputable educators are entirely in ac- 
cord with it. And I go so far as to say that the 
opinion of the people on the question at issue is not 
only defensible, but a great deal wiser than they 
themselves appreciate. They rest their case chiefly 
on the ground of utility. But I maintain, in addi- 
tion, that the three R's should be made the basis in 
estimating the efficiency of a school, because the 
results in these branches are capable of presenting 
the most tangible evidence of the general character 
of instruction that the children are receiving. As 
practically all our schools devote enough time to 
these subjects to permit them to produce a high 
order of results, failure in them justifies the infer- 
ence of failure in branches whose results are not so 
directly subject to demonstration. That is to say, 
we have no right to take it for granted that schools 
[263] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

which have proved themselves unable to lead the 
children to appreciate the relation of numbers, or 
to express their thoughts in correct and readable 
English, have for that reason succeeded doubly well 
in developing their aesthetic and scientific interests, 
or in leading them to appreciate their relation as 
individuals to society as a whole. 

I therefore maintain that just as the development 
of character furnishes a highly meritorious supple- 
ment to intellectual development in elementary edu- 
cation, but must be in no way accepted as a sub- 
stitute therefor, so the development of the aesthetic 
and scientific interests must be looked upon as a 
valuable addition to thorough instruction in arith- 
metic and English, and as fully provided for as now 
in the elementary school curriculum, but must be in 
no sense accepted as a substitute therefor. And, in 
consequence, I suggest that, in a comparative study 
of schools, the three R's shall be regarded as the 
fundamental standards, and that, while due credit 
must be given for results in all other branches, no 
school shall be passed as satisfactory as long as the 
results in these fail to meet a reasonable demand. 

In thus placing the three R's on a pedestal, I do 
not intend to imply, as I have already indicated, 
that the schools shall hereafter devote all their time 
to reading, writing, and arithmetic. On the con- 
trary, I believe that when a clear understanding has 
been reached as to what ought to be accomplished in 
these branches, even less time than now will be ex- 
pended on them. Indeed, the fixing of a minimum 
result represents but half of the problem before us, 
[ 264] 



A NEW BASIS IN SUPERVISION 

the other half being represented by the establishment 
of maximum limits of time, which my researches have 
amply proved to lie within our present allot- 
ments. Thus, I have shown in previous chapters that 
excellent results in language and arithmetic may be 
obtained by devoting forty-five minutes a day to 
each of those subjects, without any additional study 
at home, and, furthermore, that if satisfactory re- 
sults are not obtained within those limits, they are 
not likely to be obtained at all. And I firmly be- 
lieve that when our educational work has once been 
properly systematized, it will be found that the re- 
quirements can be fully met if the total appropria- 
tion for language, spelling, penmanship, and arith- 
metic does not exceed two hours a day. 

It would be proper, in this connection, to say a 
word in regard to the relative importance of other 
subjects, with a view to a wise distribution of 
credits. But when we look beyond the three R's, 
questions of creed loom into prominence, and it 
would carry us too far to enter into a discussion 
of philosophical problems. 

So much then for the theory. Let us now look to 
its practical application. 

What has been stated from the standpoint of 
theory may be summed up in the following proposi- 
tions : (1) That the aim of elementary education 
shall be to develop the higher faculties of the child 
to the greatest extent to which they can be developed 
in the elementary schools; (2) that for immediate 
purposes the range of possibility shall be determined 
by the best results to be found in our schools to- 
[265] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

day; and (3) that all schools shall be held respon- 
sible for the maintenance of standards in some meas- 
ure approaching those maintained in the most suc- 
cessful schools laboring under similar conditions, and 
that none shall be permitted to fall below a reason- 
able minimum. 

Taking these propositions as a working basis — 
on the assumption, naturally, that efficiency must 
be judged by definite achievement — the practical 
problem becomes resolved into these four questions: 
(1) Who shall determine what the schools can ac- 
complish and what they may be reasonably expected 
to accomplish? (2) Who shall decide which schools 
in a community are, and which of them are not, 
maintained upon a plane of reasonable expectation? 
(3) How can the facts be obtained upon which a 
reasonable minimum may be based? and (4) What 
can be done to enforce the minimum in every school 
when it has once been established? 

To the first two questions the answer is obvious. 
The duty of knowing what can and ought to be 
accomplished in the elementary schools, and of know- 
ing, furthermore, which of the schools are, and which 
are not, doing satisfactory work, devolves, of course, 
upon the superintendent; for if supervision has any 
purpose whatever, it is to see that the schools are 
conducted upon a plane of reasonable efficiency. 

If we accept this much, we must also agree that 
the fundamental condition of successful supervision 
is constituted by a knowledge of the best that can 
be done ; for it is evident that the term "efficient 
service" can convey no definite meaning unless based 
[266] 



A NEW BASIS IN SUPERVISION 

upon a clear conception of what our most successful 
teachers have been able to accomplish. And if this 
be true, it is equally true that the fundamental con- 
dition of successful supervision has not yet come into 
being; for standards in educational achievement are 
as yet absolutely unknown. In brief, up to the pres- 
ent time, every superintendent has been simply a law 
unto himself, and supervision has been merely a hap- 
hazard affair. 

In thus criticising supervision, I desire to empha- 
size the fact that my remarks are directed against 
our system of supervision, and not against the super- 
intendents themselves, who, as a rule, are extremely 
earnest and hard-working people. In a word, the 
difficulty does not lie with the supervising officers, 
but is due, fundamentally, to the perverted view that 
the teacher's efficiency must be estimated by what 
she knows and by the methods she employs, and not 
by what she accomplishes. In consequence of this, 
the supervising officers have largely lost sight of 
results, and have concentrated their efforts upon ob- 
serving their teachers at work and upon teaching 
them psychology and methods. And this in turn 
has led to the current view that the efficiency of a 
superintendent must be estimated by the number of 
visits he pays to the schools, the amount of psy- 
chology he knows, the number of teachers' meetings 
he holds, the breadth of his course of study, the 
character of his reports, etc., etc., while the actual 
worth of supervision must not be looked for in the 
ways and means by which it approaches the educa- 
tional problem, but in the extent to which it realizes 
[267] 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

its purposes, i.e., the extent to which the schools suc- 
ceed in developing intelligence and efficiency in the 
children; and this can only be tested by testing the 
intelligence and efficiency of the children. 

Proceeding upon the assumption that the degree 
of success in school achievement can only be esti- 
mated in the light of the best that can be done, it 
is evident that we can have no absolute basis upon 
which to estimate the degree of efficiency of a teacher 
or a principal until we shall have succeeded in ar- 
riving at a knowledge of the very best that can be 
done, and at a series of standards based thereon. 
Of course, taking a common-sense view of the mat- 
ter, the absolute best must ever remain an ideal con- 
ception, ever advancing as we approach it, and ever 
eluding pursuit. But setting aside all lofty ideals, 
and remaining well within the province of the prac- 
tical, it is not only possible, but comparatively easy, 
to establish a system that will furnish us with the 
means of relatively distinguishing between strong 
and weak, good and bad, and of basing upon these: 
first, a series of ratings which will convey in unmis- 
takable terms the comparative degree of success of 
every principal and teacher; and, secondly, a mini- 
mum demand which could scarcely fail to be ap- 
proved by reasonable and earnest teachers. 

In principle the system is simplicity itself. It con- 
sists merely in subjecting the schools from time to 
time to uniform tests — prepared not from the stand- 
point of mechanical knowledge, but strictly from that 
of efficiency — and in recording and tabulating the re- 
sults. The tests should be taken at the close of the 
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A NEW BASIS IN SUPERVISION 

period spent by the children with any one teacher, 
so that the work of each teacher could be judged 
by the progress made by her pupils during the en- 
tire period that they had spent in her room. But 
in order that the sins of the teacher may not be 
visited upon her pupils, the tests must be in no sense 
regarded as examinations for promotion. Otherwise, 
few, if any, of the pupils of very weak teachers would 
ever experience the pleasant sensation of being pro- 
moted, as they would be positively unable to make 
any kind of a showing on tests capable of demon- 
strating their degree of intelligence and efficiency. 
However, this danger would be necessarily avoided 
by the fact that the papers could not be possibly 
marked and reported upon until long after the pro- 
motions had taken place. 

At this point a serious objection will be raised 
on the ground that the spirit of rivalry among the 
teachers would cause a certain proportion of them — 
even specialists in moral development — to forget 
their consciences in their desire to obtain a good 
rating, so that the class averages might be inversely 
proportionate to the conscientiousness of the teach- 
ers, rather than directly representative of the effi- 
ciency of the pupils. But I go farther and say that 
weakness of conscience is but one of many elements 
that would have to be considered in taking uniform 
tests. A source of error of perhaps equal impor- 
tance is represented by the fact that, even among 
those whose motives could not be impugned, great 
irregularities would occur, for the reason that differ- 
ent teachers would observe different standards in 
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SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

marking. Some teachers are so constituted that they 
cannot help giving pupils the benefit of the doubt, 
in consequence of which they would be likely to mark 
the papers very much more leniently than teachers 
who have no patience with carelessness, and place a 
premium upon accuracy and precision. Thus, for 
the reasons mentioned, and many others, it may be 
stated that while volumes of records based upon uni- 
form tests freely conducted and marked by teachers 
would be as valuable as any other records of the 
same dimensions for use in starting a fire, they would 
be of no value whatever for scientific purposes, and 
might possibly become a source of corruption. 

Whatever is worth doing is worth doing well, and 
nothing is done well unless placed in charge of some 
one who can be held responsible for it. And who 
shall this be? Certainly not the superintendent, who 
already has more burdens to carry than he is capable 
of handling with care. The truth is that the neces- 
sity of developing definite standards in education 
has not yet been recognized, and that our school 
systems are not now prepared to meet the issue. 
While there is nothing in the plan of testing and re- 
cording which is not perfectly practical and feasible, 
nevertheless its application involves considerable 
labor of a kind heretofore unknown, and for this 
provision must be made in the form of a special de- 
partment of supervision — a department of results, 
in charge of a supervisor of results. 

If asked whether it is worth while to undergo the 
expense, I must ask whether it pays a railroad or 
a commercial house to keep any account of its in- 
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A NEW BASIS IN SUPERVISION 

come. The establishment of a department of results 
would mean neither more nor less than the inaugura- 
tion of a system of bookkeeping which would enable 
us to estimate what the children were getting in re- 
turn for their time and effort, not to descend to the 
level of inquiring what the people were getting for 
their money. A perfect system of pedagogical book- 
keeping would involve the opening of an account with 
every teacher and every building, the respective items 
representing the results achieved in every branch, and 
not only by a school as a whole, or a class as a whole, 
but by each individual child as well. Such records 
as these, if based on tests of efficiency, carefully 
prepared, carefully given, and followed by a careful 
marking of the papers, would be reliable records of 
the efficiency of individual teachers and principals ; 
and the tables prepared from the records, in the 
order of merit, would show at a glance which of the 
teachers and schools had been doing efficient work, 
and which of them had failed to achieve a reasonable 
minimum. Moreover, such tables would serve to 
furnish the superintendent with charts enabling him 
with open eyes to direct his forces where they would 
do the most good, instead of simply following a 
routine course in the hope that the seed he sows 
may here and there take root. 

Of course, as I have already indicated, the value 
of the work would depend entirely on the spirit in 
which it was done; for if due care should not be 
exercised, first, in the preparation of the test ques- 
tions, secondly, in the taking of the tests, and 
thirdly, in the marking of the papers, the scheme 
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SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

would be worse than useless. Therefore, it would be 
the duty of the supervisor of results to exercise due 
care in all these particulars. 

1. Of the three points mentioned, the second and 
third are matters of detail, but the first strikes the 
keynote of the whole situation; for the nature of 
the test questions will be representative of the de- 
mand, and, as such, will direct the teaching either 
in the right or the wrong direction. I can see as 
clearly as any one that under the proposed system 
lies lurking the old danger of cramming and drilling 
for examinations ; but when a rock has been sur- 
mounted by danger signals that can be seen and 
heard from afar, the ships know enough to keep 
clear of it, and it ceases to be a menace. 

Therefore, if the dangers of the examination sys- 
tem are cramming and mechanical drill, then so 
prepare your tests that these will be of no avail. 
In arithmetic, this may be done by giving all ques- 
tions in the form of problems, which call not only 
for a knowledge of the fundamental processes, but 
for independent thought as well. Under these con- 
ditions the teachers could not fail to try to get their 
pupils to acquire not merely a mechanical knowl- 
edge of arithmetic, but a thorough grasp of the 
subject; and that is exactly what we wish them to 
do. Again, in language we can avoid the dangers 
of mechanical work by avoiding all technical ques- 
tions, and limiting them to those calling for the 
power of expression; and if the teachers should so 
direct their energies as to lead their pupils to ex- 
press their thoughts in correct and readable English, 
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A NEW BASIS IN SUPERVISION 

then they would here also be doing just what they 
ought to do, and the danger of the examination in 
English would also have been turned into a blessing. 
And if the system should accomplish no more than 
lead to the development in all schools of a thorough 
grasp of arithmetic, and the power to produce a 
creditable piece of work in English, clearly and 
neatly written, and practically free from mistakes 
in spelling, then the system would accomplish in- 
finitely more than any other system, as a system, 
has ever accomplished before, and the teachers would 
be freer than they have ever been to concentrate, 
and correlate, and apperceive, and to do all the rest. 

I must confess that on the surface the scheme 
looks very mechanical and sounds very badly; but 
I take consolation in what some one has said con- 
cerning Wagner's music : "It's a great deal better 
than it sounds." If the questions were formulated 
from the standpoint of efficiency, the schools could 
not possibly fall back into the old routine. The 
fact is that our good schools would be in no way 
disturbed by the system, which has taken its cue 
from them; and I confidently believe that nearly 
all strong teachers and principals would give it 
their heartiest welcome. What it is intended to do, 
and cannot fail to do, is simply to start up the cir- 
culation of those who will not move without a spur, 
and to bring those to their senses who do not seem 
to appreciate the fundamental purpose of the ele- 
mentary school. 

2. As to ways and means of taking the tests so 
that the papers could be labelled "chemically pure," 
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SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

I have no panacea to offer; the matter being one 
that would have to be decided in accordance with 
local conditions. That the question should be raised 
at all is bad enough; but the fact that the teachers 
themselves recognize the difficulty, and look upon it, 
more or less, as merely a manifestation of human im- 
perfection, would no doubt cause them to submit 
with very good grace to any uniform precautions 
that might be prescribed. 

3. While it would be the duty of the supervisor 
of results to see that due care was exercised in 
preparing the questions and in conducting the ex- 
aminations, still these matters would represent mere 
incidents in his work, while the major portion of his 
time would be devoted to looking after the results 
themselves. This would involve care in the marking 
of the papers — which would have to be sent to his 
office immediately after collection — and care in re- 
cording and in tabulating the results. The detailed 
labor would, of course, necessitate the employment 
of assistants, who would have to be trained for this 
particular kind of work. But the number of clerks 
required would depend upon how far the community 
was willing to carry out the project, which could 
extend from a minimum of marking papers and re- 
cording results in the three R's to a maximum which 
knows no limits. For the purposes of supervision, 
pure and simple, and limited to spelling, penman- 
ship, language, and arithmetic, my own experience 
would appear to indicate that assistance at the rate 
of one clerk for every one hundred and fifty teachers 
would suffice; and perhaps one clerk to seventy-five 
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A NEW BASIS IN SUPERVISION 

teachers could care for the entire curriculum. But 
it would be possible to utilize the work of the children 
for scientific as well as for supervisory purposes, as it 
would represent material, and the only material, 
competent to verify pedagogical theories, and the 
only material out of which a genuine science of peda- 
gogy could ever be constructed. Naturally, however, 
work upon the papers from a laboratory standpoint 
would incur additional expense. 

But aside from the laboratory idea, the headquar- 
ters of the supervisor of results would represent a 
great deal more than a mere counting-room. In 
the first place, the work of the children as well as 
the records being here assembled, the papers would 
serve the purpose of vouchers whenever the records 
should be called into question by principals or teach- 
ers dissatisfied with their ratings. Up to the present 
time, the rating of teachers has been a most delicate 
affair, because superintendents have been obliged in 
this matter to judge primarily by impressions, in 
consequence of which it has been next to impossible 
for them to sustain charges of inefficiency when cross- 
examined by persons not posted on pedagogical 
creeds. Under the proposed arrangement, however, 
all controversies of this nature could be decided, one 
way or the other, by referring to the work on which 
the rating was based. 

Next, the keeping of the papers in conjunction 
with the records would serve the purpose of illus- 
trating to teachers what kind of work each rating 
implied. This object could, perhaps, be most ef- 
fectively and economically attained through a care- 
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SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

ful selection of sets of papers representing all shades 
of differences, from the best to the poorest, in the 
work of each branch and of every grade. In this 
manner teachers could learn to appreciate, as they 
could not in any other way, what can be accom- 
plished and what ought to be accomplished; and 
then, by comparing the work of their own classes 
with the selections before them, they could readily 
judge for themselves at what point in the scale their 
own results belonged. In the case of class work 
selected for general inspection, the names of the 
schools as well as those of the pupils should, for 
obvious reasons, be removed ; but no facts of any 
kind should be withheld from any of the members of 
the board of education, and none from the members 
of the local committee, in matters concerning the 
schools of their own districts. And teachers who had 
failed should be entitled to know where the good 
work had been done, so that they could place them- 
selves in communication with successful teachers, and 
try to derive as much benefit as possible from them. 

That the activities of a department of results 
would serve, in due course of time, to establish mini- 
mum standards is scarcely open to doubt. But the 
establishment of standards covers only half of the 
practical side of our problem; the other half being 
represented by their enforcement when developed. 
How, then, may the demand be enforced.? 

Taking the various pros and cons into considera- 
tion, it seems to me that, with a definite goal in view, 
three factors would serve to raise the standard of 
the weaker schools to a plane of reasonable efiiciency. 
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A NEW BASIS IN SUPERVISION 

They are: (1) Self-activity on the part of princi- 
pals and teachers; (2) local school committees; and 
(3) tenure of office contingent on efficient service. 

By self-activity, I mean improvement resulting 
from the stimulating effect of the mere existence of 
a specific and reasonable demand. Among the prin- 
cipals and teachers now employed, there is no doubt 
that a certain proportion are actually unfit for the 
positions they occupy. But, on the other hand, it is 
equally certain that failure under the conditions 
heretofore existing is by no means, in itself, an in- 
dication of incompetence, and that among those who 
have failed a great many could readily have suc- 
ceeded if their energies had been properly utilized. 
In some such instances, perhaps the majority, failure 
has been due simply to the absence of standards, i.e., 
to the fact that the principals have had no idea of 
the capacity of children, and have been laboring 
under the impression that their pupils were doing 
very well, when, in truth, they were doing very badly. 
Next, in a large number of cases, the principals have 
been led astray either by the belief that results are 
unimportant or in working out theories that won't 
work out. 

Thus, I am of the opinion that the mere existence 
of a minimum demand, and of a permanent educa- 
tional exhibit at headquarters capable of illustrating 
the nature of that demand, would, in a large num- 
ber of cases, suffice to bring about the desired result. 
The first to be affected by the stimulus would no 
doubt be those who had an unselfish desire to do 
the best they could for their pupils ; the next would 
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SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

be those whose personal pride would cause them to 
try to keep up with the procession; and, finally, the 
introduction of the element of competition into 
school work would touch the chords of ambition, and 
catch a great many additional ones. 

Thus, if the establishment of a minimum demand 
would serve to set in motion such springs of action 
as desire, pride, and ambition, we may depend upon 
it that many of those who have heretofore failed 
would in the future succeed solely through the in- 
fluence of self-activity. However, in order that these 
various motives could be relied upon to play their 
part, it would be necessary for the principals and 
teachers to know that what they were doing was 
being duly appreciated. Therefore, we should be 
obliged to fortify the demand for good work by 
introducing into the administration a body of per- 
sons whose duty it would be to take an interest and 
a pride in the schools, and to bring them in close 
touch with the citizens. Heretofore most of our edu- 
cational evils have been ascribed to the fact that the 
people have failed to take an intelligent interest in 
the schools. However, this apathy has not been the 
fault of the people, but that of the educators them- 
selves, who have thus far spoken in a language which 
laymen have been unable to understand, while a 
department of results would make that language 
intelligible to them, and serve to bridge over a chasm 
which until now has been altogether unfathomable. 

The existence, at the central office, of records 
showing the comparative standing of every school 
in the community could not fail to awaken among 
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A NEW BASIS IN SUPERVISION 

intelligent parents a desire to know how the standing 
of the school attended by their own children com- 
pared with that of other schools. To give them an 
opportunity to gratify this desire, as well as in- 
directly to exert a moral influence on the schools 
that are dearest to them, they should be entitled to 
elect a certain number of representatives clothed 
with the authority to examine the records, and to 
whom they could apply for information and advice. 
I should, therefore, suggest a division of the system 
into districts containing, say, three buildings each, 
and the establishment of district committees, com- 
posed of three members, elected by the people, those 
only being eligible who should have resided in the 
district for a number of years, and who should have 
children of their own attending the schools. 

To what extent the moral influence of the existence 
of a department of results, fortified by the sympa- 
thetic vigilance of the people, would suffice to pro- 
duce the desired effect, I am, of course, unable to 
say. But, basing an estimate on my personal knowl- 
edge of schools and school people, I have every rea- 
son to believe that, within a comparatively brief 
period, the combination would prove effective in at 
least fifty per cent of our present failures, and, 
therefore, that the actual problem would soon be- 
come so far reduced that our attention could be con- 
centrated entirely upon probably not over one-third 
of our total number of schools. 

And what could be done with the vexatious third? 
From a strictly commercial or scientific point of 
view, or from the standpoint of the rights of the 
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SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

child, the question presents no difficulty whatever, 
as the cardinal remedy is obviously that of tenure 
of office contingent upon efficient service. But as 
the dismissal of principals and teachers is always 
equivalent to banishing them from the community, 
and not infrequently to depriving them of the means 
of earning a living wage, it is evident that, except- 
ing in the case of transients, it should not be applied 
until all other expedients had failed. In considera- 
tion of this fact, the citizens should be granted a 
certain degree of latitude in the selection of a build- 
ing, so that no child could be forced to attend a 
school which was not maintained upon a plane of 
reasonable efficiency ; and, in the absence of the free- 
dom of the entire system, the parents should be per- 
mitted to choose at least between any one of the 
three buildings in their own district. As the ques- 
tion of choice would then naturally serve to place 
a certain amount of responsibility upon the shoul- 
ders of the parents, the central authorities should 
make it a point to induce especially competent prin- 
cipals to take charge of the schools in those districts 
where the majority of the parents were not suffi- 
ciently enlightened to enable them to make a dis- 
criminating selection. 

In conclusion, I desire once more to emphasize the 
fact that the system herein proposed has the ad- 
vantage of introducing enough definiteness into 
school-work to afford the plain people an oppor- 
tunity to take that intelligent interest in the educa- 
tion of their children which has so long seemed de- 
sirable. On first consideration, the question of ex- 
[280] 



A NEW BASIS IN SUPERVISION 

pense cannot fail to militate against its adoption, 
although this obstacle would not be difficult to over- 
come, if an increase of two or three per cent in the 
appropriation for the schools would be made to 
increase their efficiency by fifty per cent. But ul- 
timately the issue must be decided upon the merits 
of the plan itself. From my own point of view, the 
scheme appears attractive not only for the reasons 
I have stated in this paper, but for any number of 
additional ones which I have been here unable to 
mention, and which open up possibilities for the 
realization of educational ideals far beyond our pres- 
ent conception. For example, in the present chapter 
I have touched simply upon the development of 
standards from the side of the schools of individual 
communities, while the community itself is but an 
atom in a universal system in which the central 
position is occupied by the child, whose possibilities 
recognize no municipal limits. However, as no one 
is able to form an unprejudiced view of the merits 
of a scheme of his own invention, I must submit the 
case to the tender mercies of the reader. 

In thus placing the case into the hands of those 
who are able to form an impartial judgment, I can- 
not refrain from stating that no one who is suffi- 
ciently interested in the plan to give it careful con- 
sideration should hesitate to form an opinion on 
the ground that he is not versed in pedagogical prob- 
lems ; for, whichever side he may choose to espouse, 
he need not be ashamed of his party. If he should 
feel inclined to believe that the establishment of a 
department of results would cause all ideals to fly 
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SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 

out of the window and serve to convert the schools 
into worse machines than they have ever been, he 
would undoubtedly find himself allied with large 
numbers of educators whose motives could not be 
impugned. If, on the other hand, he should prefer 
to take the side of the writer, he would find himself 
in the company of numbers of school people of equal 
rank who feel that the inauguration of such a sys- 
tem as I have described would not be, in any sense, 
a blow at idealism, but would, on the contrary, afford 
the schools an opportunity in some measure to realize 
ideals which until now have been stored away on the 
shelves of our pedagogical libraries. Consequently, 
upon the question before us, the position occupied 
by educators is similar to that of expert witnesses in 
a case in which it is possible for either side to fur- 
nish expert testimony ad libitum, but which is ul- 
timately decided by a jury composed of ordinary 
business men. 



[282] 



DEC 9 1912 



